Microorganisms for the production of methacrylic acid

ABSTRACT

The invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway. The microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme in a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway. The invention additionally provides a method for producing 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid. The method can include culturing a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid producing microbial organism expressing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway enzyme in a sufficient amount and culturing under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid.

This application is a divisional of application Ser. No. 13/531,377, filed Jun. 22, 2012, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 12/433,829, filed Apr. 30, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,241,877, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 61/049,730, filed May 1, 2008, each of which the entire contents are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to biosynthetic processes, and more specifically to organisms having methacrylic acid, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate biosynthetic capabilities.

Methyl methacrylate is an organic compound with the formula CH₂═C(CH₃)CO₂CH₃. This colourless liquid is the methyl ester of methacrylic acid (MMA) and is the monomer for the production of the transparent plastic polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Methyl methacrylate (MMA) is a key intermediate chemical with a global demand in excess of 4.5 billion pounds per year, much of which is converted to polyacrylates.

Most commercial producers apply an acetone cyanohydrin (ACH) route to produce methacrylic acid (MAA), with acetone and hydrogen cyanide as raw materials. The intermediate cyanohydrin is converted with sulfuric acid to a sulfate ester of the methacrylamide, hydrolysis of which gives ammonium bisulfate and MAA. Some producers start with an isobutylene or, equivalently, tert-butanol, which is oxidized to methacrolein, and again oxidized to methacrylic acid. MAA is then esterified with methanol to MMA.

The conventional production process, using the acetone cyanohydrin route, involves the conversion of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and acetone to acetone cyanohydrin, which then undergoes acid assisted hydrolysis and esterification with methanol to give MMA. Difficulties in handling potentially deadly HCN along with the high costs of byproduct disposal (1.2 tons of ammonium bisulfate are formed per ton of MMA) have sparked a great deal of research aimed at cleaner and more economical processes. A number of new processes have been commercialized over the last two decades and many more are close to commercialization. The Asahi “Direct Metha” route, which involves the oxidation of isobutylene to methacrolein, which is then mixed with methanol, oxidized with air, and esterified to MMA, has been described as an economical process.

The principal application of methyl methacrylate is the production of polymethyl methacrylate acrylic plastics. Also, methyl methacrylate is used for the production of the co-polymer methyl methacrylate-butadiene-styrene (MBS), used as a modifier for PVC. Methyl methacrylate polymers and co-polymers are used for waterborne coatings, such as latex paint. Uses are also found in adhesive formulations. Contemporary applications include the use in plates that keep light spread evenly across liquid crystal display (LCD) computer and TV screens. Methyl methacrylate is also used to prepare corrosion casts of anatomical organs, such as coronary arteries of the heart.

Methacrylic acid, or 2-methyl-2-propenoic acid, is a low molecular weight carboxylic acid that occurs naturally in small amounts in the oil of Roman chamomile. It is a corrosive liquid with an acrid unpleasant odor. It is soluble in warm water and miscible with most organic solvents.

Methacrylic acid polymerizes readily upon heating or treatment with a catalytic amount of strong acid, such as HCl. The resulting polymer is a ceramic-looking plastic. Methacrylic acid is used industrially in the preparation of its esters, known collectively as methacrylates, such as methyl methacrylate, as discussed above. The methacrylates have numerous uses, most notably in the manufacture of polymers with trade names such as Lucite™ and Plexiglas™.

Other than MMA polymers, the other major product of this industry is crude methacrylic acid (crude MAA, FIG. 1), which accounts for about 20 percent of the total production of MMA. Crude MAA is processed into butyl methacrylates and/or “glacial” MAA, which is highly purified crude MAA. Glacial MAA can be used directly as a comonomer in various polymers and is also used to make a variety of small volume methacrylates. On the other hand, MAA can also be converted into MMA via esterification with methanol.

Thus, there exists a need for alternative methods for effectively producing commercial quantities of compounds such as methacrylic acid, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. The present invention satisfies this need and provides related advantages as well.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway. The microbial organism contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme in a methacrylic acid pathway. The invention additionally provides a method for producing methacrylic acid. The method can include culturing methacrylic acid producing microbial organism, where the microbial organism expresses at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid. The invention also describes organisms and production methods for the methacrylic acid precursors 3-hydroxyisobutyrate and 2-hydroxyisobutyrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the structure of methacrylic acid (MAA).

FIG. 2 shows an exemplary metabolic pathway from succinyl-CoA to MMA via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate.

FIG. 3 shows a comparison of known enzyme-catalyzed dehydrations with a predicted transformation for the dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. FIG. 3A shows conversion of 2-hydroxymethyl glutarate by 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-). FIG. 3B shows dehydration of malate to fumarate by fumarate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.2). FIG. 3C shows the predicted dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to MAA.

FIG. 4 shows an exemplary succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway via 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The “lumped reaction” (steps 2-3) is catalyzed by 1) methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase and 2) methylmalonyl-CoA reductase.

FIG. 5 shows a comparison of the known enzyme-catalyzed deamination of aspartate to form fumarate (FIG. 5A, EC 4.3.1.1) with the predicted deamination of 3-amino-2-methylpropionate to MAA (FIG. 5B).

FIG. 6 shows an exemplary 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA pathway that proceeds via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or methacrylyl-CoA. Step 2 can be catalyzed by three alternative enzymes: 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase. Similarly, step 5 can be catalyzed by three alternative enzymes: methacrylyl-CoA synthetase, methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase.

FIG. 7 shows a comparison of enzyme candidates for catalyzing the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA. Pathways encoded by candidate methylmutases: FIG. 7A, methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM, EC 5.4.99.2); FIG. 7B, isobutyryl-CoA mutase (ICM, EC 5.4.99.13); and FIG. 7C, predicted transformation proposed in FIG. 6 step 1.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA pathway via threo-3-methylaspartate.

FIG. 9 shows a comparison of known enzyme-catalyzed decarboxylations with the predicted decarboxylation of mesaconate. FIG. 9A shows transformation from aconitate to iconitate catalyzed by aconitate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.6). FIG. 9B shows decarboxylation of 4-oxalocrotonate to 2-oxopentenoate by 4-oxalocrotonate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.77). FIG. 9C shows the predicted decarboxylation of mesaconate to form MAA.

FIG. 10 shows an exemplary alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA pathway via 2-hydroxyglutarate.

FIGS. 11A-C show enzyme candidates for 3-methylmalate conversion to mesaconate. FIG. 11A shows transformation from 2-methylmalate to mesaconate catalyzed by 2-methylmalate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.34). FIG. 11B shows dehydration of malate to fumarate by fumarate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.2). FIG. 11C shows the predicted dehydration of 3-methylmalate to mesaconate.

FIG. 12 shows exemplary metabolic pathways for the conversion of acetyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA into MAA or 2-hydroxyisobutyrate.

FIG. 13 shows an exemplary pathway from acetyl-CoA to MAA.

FIG. 14 shows an exemplary acrylyl-CoA to MAA pathway.

FIG. 15 shows an exemplary 2-ketovalerate to MAA pathway. 2-Ketoisovalerate can be produced either from valine or pyruvate. An exemplary set of enzymes for pyruvate conversion to 2-ketoisovalerate is comprised of acetolactate synthase, acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase, and dihydroxyacid dehydratase.

FIG. 16 shows hypothetical production envelopes of an OptKnock-designed strain compared to a typical non-growth-coupled production strain. The area to the right of the diagonal relates to a typical production strain, whereas the left of the diagonal represents an Optknock-designed strain. The potential evolutionary trajectories of the OptKnock strain are fundamentally different in that they lead to a high producing phenotype. The open circles within the shaded areas represent prior to growth selection. The circles at the apex of the shaded areas (B for Optknock, A for typical production strain) represent phenotypes following growth selection.

FIG. 17 shows growth-coupled MAA and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate production characteristics of the highest priority knockout strain designs (gray) compared with those of wild-type E. coli (black). A glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gDW/hr is assumed.

FIG. 18 shows growth-coupled MAA production characteristics of the highest priority knockout strains (gray) for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA pathway compared to those of wild-type E. coli (black). A glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gDW/hr is assumed.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the design and production of cells and organisms having biosynthetic production capabilities for methacrylic acid. The results described herein indicate that metabolic pathways can be designed and recombinantly engineered to achieve the biosynthesis of methacrylic acid in Escherichia coli and other cells or organisms. Biosynthetic production of methacrylic acid can be confirmed by construction of strains having the designed metabolic genotype. These metabolically engineered cells or organisms also can be subjected to adaptive evolution to further augment methacrylic acid biosynthesis, including under conditions approaching theoretical maximum growth.

As disclosed herein, organisms and methods are provided for producing 2-methacrylic acid via fermentation from a renewable sugar feedstock. Described herein are high-yielding metabolic pathways for producing MAA from succinyl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate, acetyl-CoA, or other central metabolic precursors. Disclosed herein are pathways, their maximum product and ATP yields, and candidate genes for implementation of fermentative MAA production.

It is understood that pathways passing through a 3-hydroxyisobutyrate intermediate can be applied for 3-hydroxyisobutyrate production as opposed to methacrylate production if the downstream enzyme, that is, a dehydratase, is omitted (see FIGS. 2 and 6). In this case, the non-naturally occurring organism would produce 3-hydroxyisobutyrate instead of methacrylate. The non-naturally occurring organism could alternatively produce a mixture of 3-hydroxyisobutyate and methacrylate. The maximum molar yields of ATP and product will be unchanged regardless of whether methacrylate or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate is produced. It is also understood that the pathway passing through a 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA intermediate can be applied for 2-hydroxyisobutyrate production as opposed to methacrylate production if the downstream enzyme, that is, a dehydratase, is omitted and a 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, synthetase, or hydrolase is applied (see FIG. 12). In this case, the non-naturally occurring organism would produce 2-hydroxyisobutyrate instead of methacrylate. The non-naturally occurring organism could alternatively produce a mixture of 2-hydroxyisobutyate and methacrylate. The maximum molar yields of ATP and production will be unchanged regardless of whether methacrylate or 2-hydroxyisobutyrate is produced.

It is further understood that, if desired, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid expressed by a microbial organism of the invention can be chemically converted to methacrylic acid. For example, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, or β-hydroxyisobutyric acid, can be dehydrated to form methacrylic acid as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,856. 2-Hydroxyisobutyric acid, or α-hydroxyisobutyric acid, can also be dehydrated to form methacrylic acid as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,666,805 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,594.

Two pathways originating from succinyl-CoA, described in Examples I and III, and two pathways originating from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, described in Example V and XIX, provide high yields under anaerobic conditions (1.33 mol/mol glucose), favorable energetics and the availability of suitable enzyme candidates. The maximum theoretical yield of methacrylate starting from glucose as a raw material is 1.33 mol/mol glucose as shown below: C₆H₁₂O₆→1.33C₄H₆O₂+0.67CO₂+2H₂O Three additional pathways, described in Examples VII, IX and XI, are high-yielding and energetically favorable under aerobic conditions. These pathways originate from alpha-ketoglutarate (Examples VII and IX) or acetyl-CoA (Example XI) as a starting material.

Three additional pathways, described in Examples XIII-XV, provide lower yields. The alternate acetyl-CoA pathway (Example XIII) is high-yielding under aerobic conditions but is lengthy, involving a minimum of seven enzymatic steps. The acrylyl-CoA pathway (Example XIV) is high-yielding under anaerobic and aerobic conditions, but has the disadvantages of unfavorable energetics, formation of a toxic intermediate (acrylyl-CoA), and a high susceptibility to the secretion of fermentation byproducts. The 2-ketoisovalerate pathway is high-yielding under aerobic conditions but also has the disadvantage of producing a potentially toxic intermediate (MAA-CoA)(Example XV).

As used herein, the term “non-naturally occurring” when used in reference to a microbial organism or microorganism of the invention is intended to mean that the microbial organism has at least one genetic alteration not normally found in a naturally occurring strain of the referenced species, including wild-type strains of the referenced species. Genetic alterations include, for example, modifications introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides, other nucleic acid additions, nucleic acid deletions and/or other functional disruption of the microbial genetic material. Such modifications include, for example, coding regions and functional fragments thereof, for heterologous, homologous or both heterologous and homologous polypeptides for the referenced species. Additional modifications include, for example, non-coding regulatory regions in which the modifications alter expression of a gene or operon. Exemplary metabolic polypeptides include enzymes within a methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathway.

A metabolic modification refers to a biochemical reaction that is altered from its naturally occurring state. Therefore, non-naturally occurring microorganisms can have genetic modifications to nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides or, functional fragments thereof. Exemplary metabolic modifications are disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “isolated” when used in reference to a microbial organism is intended to mean an organism that is substantially free of at least one component as the referenced microbial organism is found in nature. The term includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as it is found in its natural environment. The term also includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as the microbial organism is found in non-naturally occurring environments. Therefore, an isolated microbial organism is partly or completely separated from other substances as it is found in nature or as it is grown, stored or subsisted in non-naturally occurring environments. Specific examples of isolated microbial organisms include partially pure microbes, substantially pure microbes and microbes cultured in a medium that is non-naturally occurring.

As used herein, the terms “microbial,” “microbial organism” or “microorganism” is intended to mean any organism that exists as a microscopic cell that is included within the domains of archaea, bacteria or eukarya. Therefore, the term is intended to encompass prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or organisms having a microscopic size and includes bacteria, archaea and eubacteria of all species as well as eukaryotic microorganisms such as yeast and fungi. The term also includes cell cultures of any species that can be cultured for the production of a biochemical.

As used herein, “methacrylic acid,” having the chemical formula CH₂═C(CH₃)CO₂ (see FIG. 1) (IUPAC name 2-methyl-2-propenoic acid), is the acid form of methacrylate, and it is understood that methacrylic acid and methacrylate can be used interchangebly throughout to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof. It is understood by those skilled understand that the specific form will depend on the pH. Similarly, it is understood that 2-hydroxyisobutyrate and 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be used interchangebly throughout to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof. Further, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate and 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be used interchangebly throughout to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof.

As used herein, the term “CoA” or “coenzyme A” is intended to mean an organic cofactor or prosthetic group (nonprotein portion of an enzyme) whose presence is required for the activity of many enzymes (the apoenzyme) to form an active enzyme system. Coenzyme A functions in certain condensing enzymes, acts in acetyl or other acyl group transfer and in fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, pyruvate oxidation and in other acetylation.

As used herein, the term “substantially anaerobic” when used in reference to a culture or growth condition is intended to mean that the amount of oxygen is less than about 10% of saturation for dissolved oxygen in liquid media. The term also is intended to include sealed chambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere of less than about 1% oxygen.

“Exogenous” as it is used herein is intended to mean that the referenced molecule or the referenced activity is introduced into the host microbial organism. The molecule can be introduced, for example, by introduction of an encoding nucleic acid into the host genetic material such as by integration into a host chromosome or as non-chromosomal genetic material such as a plasmid. Therefore, the term as it is used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to introduction of the encoding nucleic acid in an expressible form into the microbial organism. When used in reference to a biosynthetic activity, the term refers to an activity that is introduced into the host reference organism. The source can be, for example, a homologous or heterologous encoding nucleic acid that expresses the referenced activity following introduction into the host microbial organism. Therefore, the term “endogenous” refers to a referenced molecule or activity that is present in the host. Similarly, the term when used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to expression of an encoding nucleic acid contained within the microbial organism. The term “heterologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from a source other than the referenced species whereas “homologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from the host microbial organism. Accordingly, exogenous expression of an encoding nucleic acid of the invention can utilize either or both a heterologous or homologous encoding nucleic acid.

The non-naturally occurring microbal organisms of the invention can contain stable genetic alterations, which refers to microorganisms that can be cultured for greater than five generations without loss of the alteration. Generally, stable genetic alterations include modifications that persist greater than 10 generations, particularly stable modifications will persist more than about 25 generations, and more particularly, stable genetic modifications will be greater than 50 generations, including indefinitely.

Those skilled in the art will understand that the genetic alterations, including metabolic modifications exemplified herein, are described with reference to a suitable host organism such as E. coli and their corresponding metabolic reactions or a suitable source organism for desired genetic material such as genes for a desired metabolic pathway. However, given the complete genome sequencing of a wide variety of organisms and the high level of skill in the area of genomics, those skilled in the art will readily be able to apply the teachings and guidance provided herein to essentially all other organisms. For example, the E. coli metabolic alterations exemplified herein can readily be applied to other species by incorporating the same or analogous encoding nucleic acid from species other than the referenced species. Such genetic alterations include, for example, genetic alterations of species homologs, in general, and in particular, orthologs, paralogs or nonorthologous gene displacements.

An ortholog is a gene or genes that are related by vertical descent and are responsible for substantially the same or identical functions in different organisms. For example, mouse epoxide hydrolase and human epoxide hydrolase can be considered orthologs for the biological function of hydrolysis of epoxides. Genes are related by vertical descent when, for example, they share sequence similarity of sufficient amount to indicate they are homologous, or related by evolution from a common ancestor. Genes can also be considered orthologs if they share three-dimensional structure but not necessarily sequence similarity, of a sufficient amount to indicate that they have evolved from a common ancestor to the extent that the primary sequence similarity is not identifiable. Genes that are orthologous can encode proteins with sequence similarity of about 25% to 100% amino acid sequence identity. Genes encoding proteins sharing an amino acid similarity less that 25% can also be considered to have arisen by vertical descent if their three-dimensional structure also shows similarities. Members of the serine protease family of enzymes, including tissue plasminogen activator and elastase, are considered to have arisen by vertical descent from a common ancestor.

Orthologs include genes or their encoded gene products that through, for example, evolution, have diverged in structure or overall activity. For example, where one species encodes a gene product exhibiting two functions and where such functions have been separated into distinct genes in a second species, the three genes and their corresponding products are considered to be orthologs. For the production of a biochemical product, those skilled in the art will understand that the orthologous gene harboring the metabolic activity to be introduced or disrupted is to be chosen for construction of the non-naturally occurring microorganism. An example of orthologs exhibiting separable activities is where distinct activities have been separated into distinct gene products between two or more species or within a single species. A specific example is the separation of elastase proteolysis and plasminogen proteolysis, two types of serine protease activity, into distinct molecules as plasminogen activator and elastase. A second example is the separation of mycoplasma 5′-3′ exonuclease and Drosophila DNA polymerase III activity. The DNA polymerase from the first species can be considered an ortholog to either or both of the exonuclease or the polymerase from the second species and vice versa.

In contrast, paralogs are homologs related by, for example, duplication followed by evolutionary divergence and have similar or common, but not identical functions. Paralogs can originate or derive from, for example, the same species or from a different species. For example, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase I) and soluble epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase II) can be considered paralogs because they represent two distinct enzymes, co-evolved from a common ancestor, that catalyze distinct reactions and have distinct functions in the same species. Paralogs are proteins from the same species with significant sequence similarity to each other suggesting that they are homologous, or related through co-evolution from a common ancestor. Groups of paralogous protein families include HipA homologs, luciferase genes, peptidases, and others.

A nonorthologous gene displacement is a nonorthologous gene from one species that can substitute for a referenced gene function in a different species. Substitution includes, for example, being able to perform substantially the same or a similar function in the species of origin compared to the referenced function in the different species. Although generally, a nonorthologous gene displacement will be identifiable as structurally related to a known gene encoding the referenced function, less structurally related but functionally similar genes and their corresponding gene products nevertheless will still fall within the meaning of the term as it is used herein. Functional similarity requires, for example, at least some structural similarity in the active site or binding region of a nonorthologous gene product compared to a gene encoding the function sought to be substituted. Therefore, a nonorthologous gene includes, for example, a paralog or an unrelated gene.

Therefore, in identifying and constructing the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention having methacrylic acid biosynthetic capability, those skilled in the art will understand with applying the teaching and guidance provided herein to a particular species that the identification of metabolic modifications can include identification and inclusion or inactivation of orthologs. To the extent that paralogs and/or nonorthologous gene displacements are present in the referenced microorganism that encode an enzyme catalyzing a similar or substantially similar metabolic reaction, those skilled in the art also can utilize these evolutionally related genes.

Orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements can be determined by methods well known to those skilled in the art. For example, inspection of nucleic acid or amino acid sequences for two polypeptides will reveal sequence identity and similarities between the compared sequences. Based on such similarities, one skilled in the art can determine if the similarity is sufficiently high to indicate the proteins are related through evolution from a common ancestor. Algorithms well known to those skilled in the art, such as Align, BLAST, Clustal W and others compare and determine a raw sequence similarity or identity, and also determine the presence or significance of gaps in the sequence which can be assigned a weight or score. Such algorithms also are known in the art and are similarly applicable for determining nucleotide sequence similarity or identity. Parameters for sufficient similarity to determine relatedness are computed based on well known methods for calculating statistical similarity, or the chance of finding a similar match in a random polypeptide, and the significance of the match determined. A computer comparison of two or more sequences can, if desired, also be optimized visually by those skilled in the art. Related gene products or proteins can be expected to have a high similarity, for example, 25% to 100% sequence identity. Proteins that are unrelated can have an identity which is essentially the same as would be expected to occur by chance, if a database of sufficient size is scanned (about 5%). Sequences between 5% and 24% may or may not represent sufficient homology to conclude that the compared sequences are related. Additional statistical analysis to determine the significance of such matches given the size of the data set can be carried out to determine the relevance of these sequences.

Exemplary parameters for determining relatedness of two or more sequences using the BLAST algorithm, for example, can be as set forth below. Briefly, amino acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTP version 2.0.8 (Jan. 5, 1999) and the following parameters: Matrix: 0 BLOSUM62; gap open: 11; gap extension: 1; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 3; filter: on. Nucleic acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTN version 2.0.6 (Sep. 16, 1998) and the following parameters: Match: 1; mismatch: −2; gap open: 5; gap extension: 2; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 11; filter: off. Those skilled in the art will know what modifications can be made to the above parameters to either increase or decrease the stringency of the comparison, for example, and determine the relatedness of two or more sequences.

As disclosed herein, high-yielding metabolic pathways for 2-methacrylic acid (MAA) synthesis using glucose/sucrose as a carbon substrate are described. The two principal criteria for analyzing and ranking these pathways were the maximum theoretical yields of MAA and the associated energetics under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Product and energy yields were calculated by adding the pathways in question to an E. coli stoichiometric network in SimPheny™ that is similar to the one described in Reed et al (Reed et al., Genome Biol. 4:R54 (2003)). As MAA is a charged molecule under physiological conditions, product export is assumed to be mediated by a proton-symport mechanism. This transport mechanism is not expected to encounter a thermodynamic limitation at near neutral fermentation conditions, although it will become less thermodynamically favorable under acidic fermentation conditions. The reactions in the pathways and the required enzymatic activities are discussed in the Examples.

The invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism capable of producing methacrylic acid. For example, a methacrylic acid pathway is provided in which succinyl-CoA is a precursor (see Examples I-IV, FIGS. 2 and 4). In one embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Examples I and II and FIG. 2). In another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, alcohol/aldehyde dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example I). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase (see Examples III and IV and FIG. 4).

Additionally provided is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a methacrylic acid pathway having 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor. One such embodiment is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Examples V and VI and FIG. 6). Alternatively, the pathway could include 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase; and methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase.

Further, the present invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway having 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor. One such embodiment is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (see Example V and FIG. 6).

The invention further provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a methacrylic acid pathway having alpha-ketoglutarate as a precursor. One such embodiment is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate mutase, 3-methylaspartase, and mesaconate decarboxylase (see Examples VII and VIII and FIG. 8). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase, 3-methylmalate dehydratase, and mesaconate decarboxylase (see Examples IX and X and FIG. 10).

In still another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a methacrylic acid pathway having acetyl-CoA as a precursor. For example, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and methacrylyl-CoA transferase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA synthetase (see Examples XI and XII and FIG. 12). In another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, enoyl-CoA hydratase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example XI and XII).

In still another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway having acetyl-CoA as a precursor. For example, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase; acetoacetyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (see Examples XI and FIG. 12).

In further embodiments, the invention provides non-naturally occurring microbial organisms containing a methacrylic acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway having 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor. For example, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase; crotonase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase; and methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XVIII and FIG. 12). Further, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase; crotonase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (see Examples XVIII and FIG. 12).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, crotonase, butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, isobutyryl-CoA mutase, isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XIII and FIG. 13).

The invention further provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a methacrylic acid pathway having pyruvate as a precursor. For example, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising lactate dehydrogenase, lactate-CoA transferase, lactoyl-CoA dehydratase, acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, propionyl-CoA carboxylase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example XIV and FIG. 14).

Also provided by the invention is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing a methacrylic acid pathway having 2-ketoisovalerate as a precursor. For example, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising valine aminotransferase, 2-ketoisovalerate dehydrogenase, isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XV and FIG. 15). Such a methacrylic acid pathway can further contain valine aminotransferase, which converts valine to 2-ketoisovalerate (FIG. 15). In addition, such a methacrylic acid pathway can further contain enzymes that convert pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate (FIG. 15), such as acetolactate synthase, acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase and dihydroxy-acid dehydratase (see Example XV).

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway, wherein the non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a protein or enzyme that converts a substrate to a product. Such a pathway can be, for example, succinyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA, methylmalonyl-CoA to methylmalonate semialdehyde, methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate for a succinyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway, and additionally 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methacrylic acid for a succinyl-CoA to methacrylic acid pathway (see FIG. 2). Additionally, such a pathway can be, for example, succinyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA, methylmalonyl-CoA to methylmalonate semialdehyde, methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpriopionate, and 3-amino-2-methylpriopionate to methacrylic acid for an alternative succinyl-CoA to methacrylic acid pathway (see FIG. 4).

In another embodiment, such a pathway can be, for example, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxisobutyrate for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxisobutyrate pathway, and additionally 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methacrylic acid for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to methacrylic acid pathway (see FIG. 6). Further, such a pathway can be, for example, alpha-ketoglutarate to glutamate, glutamate to threo-3-methylaspartate, threo-3-methylaspartate to mesaconate, mesaconate to methacrylic acid for an alpha-ketoglutarate to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 8). Also, such a pathway can be, for example, alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate, 2-hydroxyglutarate to 3-methylmalate, 3-methylmalate to mesaconate, and mesaconate to methacrylic acid for an alpha-ketoglutarate to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 10).

In still another embodiment, such a pathway can be, for example, acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA, acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA, and methacrylyl-CoA to methacrylic acid for an acetyl-CoA to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 12). Also, such a pathway can be, for example, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to vinylacetyl-CoA, vinylacetyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA, crotonyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA, and methacrylyl-CoA to methacrylic acid for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 12).

In yet another embodiment, such a pathway can be, for example, acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA, acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid for an acetyl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway (FIG. 12). Also, such a pathway can be, for example, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to vinylacetyl-CoA, vinylacetyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA, crotonyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid for 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway (FIG. 12).

In another embodiment, such a pathway can be, for example, acetyl-CoA to acetoactyl-CoA, acetoactyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA, crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA, butyryl-CoA to isobutyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA, and methacrylyl-CoA to methacrylic acid (FIG. 13). Additionally, such a pathway can be, for example, pyruvate to lactate, lactate to lactoyl-CoA, lactoyl-CoA to acrylyl-CoA, acrylyl-CoA to propionyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA, and methylmalonyl-CoA to methacrylic acid (FIG. 14). Also, such a pathway can be, for example, pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate, 2-ketoisovalerate to isobutyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA, and methacrylyl-CoA to methacrylic acid for a pyruvate to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 15). Alternatively, such a pathway can be, for example, valine to 2-ketoisovalerate, 2-ketoisovalerate to isobutyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA, and methacrylyl-CoA to methacrylic acid for a valine to methacrylic acid pathway (FIG. 15). Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts the substrates and products of a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacryl acid pathway, such as that shown in FIGS. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12-15.

The invention is described herein with general reference to the metabolic reaction, reactant or product thereof, or with specific reference to one or more nucleic acids or genes encoding an enzyme associated with or catalyzing the referenced metabolic reaction, reactant or product. Unless otherwise expressly stated herein, those skilled in the art will understand that reference to a reaction also constitutes reference to the reactants and products of the reaction. Similarly, unless otherwise expressly stated herein, reference to a reactant or product also references the reaction, and reference to any of these metabolic constituents also references the gene or genes encoding the enzymes that catalyze the referenced reaction, reactant or product. Likewise, given the well known fields of metabolic biochemistry, enzymology and genomics, reference herein to a gene or encoding nucleic acid also constitutes a reference to the corresponding encoded enzyme and the reaction it catalyzes as well as the reactants and products of the reaction.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be produced by introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding one or more of the enzymes participating in one or more methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathways. Similarly, non-naturally occurring organisms of the invention can be produced by introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding one or more of the enzymes participating in one or more 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathways. Depending on the host microbial organism chosen for biosynthesis, nucleic acids for some or all of a particular methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway can be expressed. For example, if a chosen host is deficient in one or more enzymes for a desired biosynthetic pathway, then expressible nucleic acids for the deficient enzyme(s) are introduced into the host for subsequent exogenous expression. Alternatively, if the chosen host exhibits endogenous expression of some pathway genes, but is deficient in others, then an encoding nucleic acid is needed for the deficient enzyme(s) to achieve methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthesis. Thus, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can be produced by introducing exogenous enzyme activities to obtain a desired biosynthetic pathway or a desired biosynthetic pathway can be obtained by introducing one or more exogenous enzyme activities that, together with one or more endogenous enzymes, produces a desired product such as methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

Depending on the methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathway constituents of a selected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention will include at least one exogenously expressed methacrylic acid pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to all encoding nucleic acids for one or more methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathways. For example, methacrylic acid biosynthesis can be established in a host deficient in a pathway enzyme through exogenous expression of the corresponding encoding nucleic acid. In a host deficient in all enzymes of a methacrylic acid pathway, exogenous expression of all enzyme in the pathway can be included, although it is understood that all enzymes of a pathway can be expressed even if the host contains at least one of the pathway enzymes. Similarly, depending on the 3-hydoxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway constituents of a selected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention will include at least one exogenously expressed 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to all encoding nucleic acids for one or more 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathways, respectively.

For example, exogenous expression of all enzymes in a pathway for production of methacrylic acid can be included. For example, all enzymes in a pathway for production of methacrylic acid can be included, such as methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. Another example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, alcohol/aldehyde dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. A further example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase. In still another example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. Also, an example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate mutase, 3-methylaspartase, and mesaconate decarboxylase. Yet another example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase, 3-methylmalate dehydratase, and mesaconate decarboxylase. A further example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and methacrylyl-CoA transferase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA synthetase. Still another example of enzymes in a methacrylic acid pathway includes acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, enoyl-CoA hydratase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. It is understood that these and any of the methacrylic acid pathways disclosed herein can be utilized in a microbial organism to generate a methacrylic acid producing microbial organism.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that the number of encoding nucleic acids to introduce in an expressible form will, at least, parallel the methacrylic acid pathway deficiencies of the selected host microbial organism. Therefore, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can have one, two, three, four, and so forth, up to all nucleic acids encoding the above enzymes constituting a methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathway, as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms also can include other genetic modifications that facilitate or optimize methacrylic acid biosynthesis or that confer other useful functions onto the host microbial organism. One such other functionality can include, for example, augmentation of the synthesis of one or more of the methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway precursors. Exemplary methacrylic acid pathway precursors include, but are not limited to, succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate, acetyl-CoA, pyruvate, and 2-ketoisovalerate.

Generally, a host microbial organism is selected such that it produces the precursor of a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, either as a naturally produced molecule or as an engineered product that either provides de novo production of a desired precursor or increased production of a precursor naturally produced by the host microbial organism. For example, succinyl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate, acetyl-CoA, and pyruvate are produced naturally in a host organism such as E. coli during glucose, fatty acid and amino acid metabolism and as components of the TCA cycle. A host organism can be engineered to increase production of a precursor, as disclosed herein. Such engineered microorganisms have been described previously (see, for example, U.S. publication 2007/0111294). In addition, a microbial organism that has been engineered to produce a desired precursor can be used as a host organism, for example, a microorganism engineered to produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (see, for example, U.S. application Ser. No. 12/049,256, filed Mar. 14, 2008), as disclosed herein. Such host organisms can be further engineered to express enzymes of a methacrylic acid 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway.

In some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention is generated from a host that contains the enzymatic capability to synthesize methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. In this specific embodiment it can be useful to increase the synthesis or accumulation of a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway product to, for example, drive methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway reactions toward methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid production. Increased synthesis or accumulation can be accomplished by, for example, overexpression of nucleic acids encoding one or more of the above-described methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzymes. Over expression of the methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme or enzymes can occur, for example, through exogenous expression of the endogenous gene or genes, or through exogenous expression of the heterologous gene or genes. Therefore, naturally occurring organisms can be readily generated to be non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention, for example, producing methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, through overexpression of one, two, three, four, five. and so forth, depending on the methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, that is, up to including all nucleic acids encoding methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway enzymes. In addition, a non-naturally occurring organism can be generated by mutagenesis of an endogenous gene that results in an increase in activity of an enzyme in the methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway.

In particularly useful embodiments, exogenous expression of the encoding nucleic acids is employed. Exogenous expression confers the ability to custom tailor the expression and/or regulatory elements to the host and application to achieve a desired expression level that is controlled by the user. However, endogenous expression also can be utilized in other embodiments such as by removing a negative regulatory effector or induction of the gene's promoter when linked to an inducible promoter or other regulatory element. Thus, an endogenous gene having a naturally occurring inducible promoter can be up-regulated by providing the appropriate inducing agent, or the regulatory region of an endogenous gene can be engineered to incorporate an inducible regulatory element, thereby allowing the regulation of increased expression of an endogenous gene at a desired time. Similarly, an inducible promoter can be included as a regulatory element for an exogenous gene introduced into a non-naturally occurring microbial organism.

It is understood that, in methods of the invention, any of the one or more exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a microbial organism to produce a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. The nucleic acids can be introduced so as to confer, for example, a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway onto the microbial organism. Alternatively, encoding nucleic acids can be introduced to produce an intermediate microbial organism having the biosynthetic capability to catalyze some of the required reactions to confer methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic capability. For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathway can comprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymes. One exemplary combination includes the combination of methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase; or methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and methylmalonyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase, and the like. In another exemplary pathway, a combination can include 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase; 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase, and so forth. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention.

Similarly, it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, for example, methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, and methylmalonyl-CoA reductase; methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase, and so forth. In another example, the combination can be alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, 3-methylmalate dehydratase, and mesaconate decarboxylase; 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase, 3-methylmalate dehydratase, and mesaconate decarboxylase, and so forth, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product. Similarly, any combination of four, five, six or more enzymes, depending on the desired pathway, of a biosynthetic pathway as disclosed herein can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product.

In addition to the biosynthesis of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid as described herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention also can be utilized in various combinations with each other and with other microbial organisms and methods well known in the art to achieve product biosynthesis by other routes. For example, one alternative to produce methacrylic acid other than use of the methacrylic acid producers is through addition of another microbial organism capable of converting a methacrylic acid pathway intermediate to methacrylic acid. One such procedure includes, for example, the fermentation of a microbial organism that produces a methacrylic acid pathway intermediate. The methacrylic acid pathway intermediate can then be used as a substrate for a second microbial organism that converts the methacrylic acid pathway intermediate to methacrylic acid. The methacrylic acid pathway intermediate can be added directly to another culture of the second organism or the original culture of the methacrylic acid pathway intermediate producers can be depleted of these microbial organisms by, for example, cell separation, and then subsequent addition of the second organism to the fermentation broth can be utilized to produce the final product without intermediate purification steps.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention can be assembled in a wide variety of subpathways to achieve biosynthesis of, for example, methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. In these embodiments, biosynthetic pathways for a desired product of the invention can be segregated into different microbial organisms, and the different microbial organisms can be co-cultured to produce the final product. In such a biosynthetic scheme, the product of one microbial organism is the substrate for a second microbial organism until the final product is synthesized. For example, the biosynthesis of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be accomplished by constructing a microbial organism that contains biosynthetic pathways for conversion of one pathway intermediate to another pathway intermediate or the product. Alternatively, methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid also can be biosynthetically produced from microbial organisms through co-culture or co-fermentation using two organisms in the same vessel, where the first microbial organism produces a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway intermediate and the second microbial organism converts the intermediate to methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a wide variety of combinations and permutations exist for the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention together with other microbial organisms, with the co-culture of other non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having subpathways and with combinations of other chemical and/or biochemical procedures well known in the art to produce methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. For example, fermentation to form 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be combined with a purification scheme to yield methyl methacrylate (see WO 2002/090312).

Sources of encoding nucleic acids for a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme can include, for example, any species where the encoded gene product is capable of catalyzing the referenced reaction. Such species include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms including, but not limited to, bacteria, including archaea and eubacteria, and eukaryotes, including yeast, plant, insect, animal, and mammal, including human. Exemplary species for such sources include, for example, Escherichia coli, Homo sapiens, Propionibacterium fredenreichii, Methylobacterium extorquens, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella enterica, Yersinia frederiksenii, Propionibacterium acnes, Rattus norvegicus, Caenorhabditis elegans, Bacillus cereus, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Acinetobacter baylyi, Acinetobacter sp., Clostridium kluyveri, Pseudomonas sp., Thermus thermophilus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, Oryctolagus cuniculus, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Eubacterium barkeri, Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, Natranaerobius thermophilus, Campylobacter jejuni, Arabidopsis thaliana, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Sus scrofa, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Serratia marcescens, Streptomyces coelicolor, Methylibium petroleiphilum, Streptomyces cinnamonensis, Streptomyces avermitilis, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Haloarcula marismortui, Pyrobaculum aerophilum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Clostridium cochlearium, Clostridium tetanomorphum, Clostridium tetani, Citrobacter amalonaticus, Ralstonia eutropha, Mus musculus, Bos taurus, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Morganella morganii, Clostridium pasteurianum, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Xanthobacter autotrophicus, Clostridium propionicum, Megasphaera elsdenii, Aspergillus terreus, Candida, Sulfolobus tokodaii, Metallosphaera sedula, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum, Acidaminococcus fermentans, Helicobacter pylori, as well as other exemplary species disclosed herein or available as source organisms for corresponding genes. However, with the complete genome sequence available for now more than 550 species (with more than half of these available on public databases such as the NCBI), including 395 microorganism genomes and a variety of yeast, fungi, plant, and mammalian genomes, the identification of genes encoding the requisite methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic activity for one or more genes in related or distant species, including for example, homologues, orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements of known genes, and the interchange of genetic alterations between organisms is routine and well known in the art. Accordingly, the metabolic alterations enabling biosynthesis of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid described herein with reference to a particular organism such as E. coli can be readily applied to other microorganisms, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms alike. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will know that a metabolic alteration exemplified in one organism can be applied equally to other organisms.

In some instances, such as when an alternative methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathway exists in an unrelated species, methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthesis can be conferred onto the host species by, for example, exogenous expression of a paralog or paralogs from the unrelated species that catalyzes a similar, yet non-identical metabolic reaction to replace the referenced reaction. Because certain differences among metabolic networks exist between different organisms, those skilled in the art will understand that the actual gene usage between different organisms may differ. However, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that the teachings and methods of the invention can be applied to all microbial organisms using the cognate metabolic alterations to those exemplified herein to construct a microbial organism in a species of interest that will synthesize methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

Host microbial organisms can be selected from, and the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms generated in, for example, bacteria, yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable to fermentation processes. Exemplary bacteria include species selected from Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Rhizobium etli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas putida. Exemplary yeasts or fungi include species selected from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger and Pichia pastoris. E. coli is a particularly useful host organisms since it is a well characterized microbial organism suitable for genetic engineering. Other particularly useful host organisms include yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of a non-naturally occurring methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid-producing host can be performed, for example, by recombinant and detection methods well known in the art. Such methods can be found described in, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (2001); and Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1999).

Exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a pathway for production of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be introduced stably or transiently into a host cell using techniques well known in the art including, but not limited to, conjugation, electroporation, chemical transformation, transduction, transfection, and ultrasound transformation. For exogenous expression in E. coli or other prokaryotic cells, some nucleic acid sequences in the genes or cDNAs of eukaryotic nucleic acids can encode targeting signals such as an N-terminal mitochondrial or other targeting signal, which can be removed before transformation into prokaryotic host cells, if desired. For example, removal of a mitochondrial leader sequence led to increased expression in E. coli (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005). For exogenous expression in yeast or other eukaryotic cells, genes can be expressed in the cytosol without the addition of leader sequence, or can be targeted to mitochondrion or other organelles, or targeted for secretion, by the addition of a suitable targeting sequence such as a mitochondrial targeting or secretion signal suitable for the host cells. Thus, it is understood that appropriate modifications to a nucleic acid sequence to remove or include a targeting sequence can be incorporated into an exogenous nucleic acid sequence to impart desirable properties. Furthermore, genes can be subjected to codon optimization with techniques well known in the art to achieve optimized expression of the proteins.

An expression vector or vectors can be constructed to include one or more methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathway encoding nucleic acids as exemplified herein operably linked to expression control sequences functional in the host organism. Expression vectors applicable for use in the microbial host organisms of the invention include, for example, plasmids, phage vectors, viral vectors, episomes and artificial chromosomes, including vectors and selection sequences or markers operable for stable integration in to a host chromosome. Additionally, the expression vectors can include one or more selectable marker genes and appropriate expression control sequences. Selectable marker genes also can be included that, for example, provide resistance to antibiotics or toxins, complement auxotrophic deficiencies, or supply critical nutrients not in the culture media. Expression control sequences can include constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancers, transcription terminators, and the like which are well known in the art. When two or more exogenous encoding nucleic acids are to be co-expressed, both nucleic acids can be inserted, for example, into a single expression vector or in separate expression vectors. For single vector expression, the encoding nucleic acids can be operationally linked to one common expression control sequence or linked to different expression control sequences, such as one inducible promoter and one constitutive promoter. The transformation of exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a metabolic or synthetic pathway can be confirmed using methods well known in the art. Such methods include, for example, nucleic acid analysis such as Northern blots or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of mRNA, or immunoblotting for expression of gene products, or other suitable analytical methods to test the expression of an introduced nucleic acid sequence or its corresponding gene product. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in a sufficient amount to produce the desired product, and it is further understood that expression levels can be optimized to obtain sufficient expression using methods well known in the art and as disclosed herein.

The invention additionally provides methods for producing a desired product such as methacrylic acid. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce metharcylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Examples I and II and FIG. 2). In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, alcohol/aldehyde dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example I).

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase (see Examples III and IV and FIG. 4). Additionally provided is a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Examples V and VI and FIG. 6).

Also provided is a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate mutase, 3-methylaspartase, and mesaconate decarboxylase (see Examples VII and VIII and FIG. 8). Another embodiment provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase, 3-methylmalate dehydratase, and mesaconate decarboxylase (see Examples IX and X and FIG. 10).

In yet a further embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and methacrylyl-CoA transferase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA synthetase (see Example XI and XII and FIG. 12). A still further embodiment provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase, enoyl-CoA hydratase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example XI and XII).

The invention additional provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, crotonase, butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, isobutyryl-CoA mutase, isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XIII and FIG. 13). Also provided method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising lactate dehydrogenase, lactate-CoA transferase, lactoyl-CoA dehydratase, acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, propionyl-CoA carboxylase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (see Example XIV and FIG. 14). Yet a further embodiment provides a method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising valine aminotransferase, 2-ketoisovalerate dehydrogenase, isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XV and FIG. 15). Such a pathway can further comprise acetolactate synthase, acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase and dihydroxy-acid dehydratase.

The invention additionally provides a method for producing 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (see Example V and FIG. 6). Also provided is a method for producing 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase; acetoacetyl-CoA reductase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase (see Example XI and FIG. 12).

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing methacrylic acid comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase; crotonase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase; and methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase or methacrylyl-CoA synthetase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase (see Example XVIII and FIG. 12). Also provided is a method for producing 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway comprising 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase; crotonase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase; and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA synthetase or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (see Examples XVIII and FIG. 12).

Suitable purification and/or assays to test for the production of methacrylic acid can be performed using well known methods. Suitable replicates such as triplicate cultures can be grown for each engineered strain to be tested. For example, product and byproduct formation in the engineered production host can be monitored. The final product and intermediates, and other organic compounds, can be analyzed by methods such as HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography), GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) and LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy), or other suitable analytical methods using routine procedures well known in the art. The release of product in the fermentation broth can also be tested with the culture supernatant. Byproducts and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC using, for example, a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 90:775-779 (2005)), or other suitable assay and detection methods well known in the art. The individual enzyme activities from the exogenous DNA sequences can also be assayed using methods well known in the art.

The methacrylic acid, 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid products can be separated from other components in the culture using a variety of methods well known in the art. Such separation methods include, for example, extraction procedures as well as methods that include continuous liquid-liquid extraction, pervaporation, membrane filtration, membrane separation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, distillation, crystallization, centrifugation, extractive filtration, ion exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, adsorption chromatography, and ultrafiltration. All of the above methods are well known in the art.

Any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms described herein can be cultured to produce and/or secrete the biosynthetic products of the invention. For example, the methacrylic acid producers can be cultured for the biosynthetic production of methacrylic acid.

For the production of methacrylic acid, 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the recombinant strains are cultured in a medium with carbon source and other essential nutrients. It is highly desirable to maintain anaerobic conditions in the fermenter to reduce the cost of the overall process. Such conditions can be obtained, for example, by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the flasks with a septum and crimp-cap. For strains where growth is not observed anaerobically, microaerobic conditions can be applied by perforating the septum with a small hole for limited aeration. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well-known in the art. Exemplary aerobic and anaerobic conditions are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/891,602, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Fermentations can be performed in a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner, as disclosed herein.

If desired, the pH of the medium can be maintained at a desired pH, in particular neutral pH, such as a pH of around 7 by addition of a base, such as NaOH or other bases, or acid, as needed to maintain the culture medium at a desirable pH. The growth rate can be determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time.

The growth medium can be, for example, any carbohydrate source which can supply a source of carbon to the non-naturally occurring microorganism. Such sources include, for example, sugars such as glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Other sources of carbohydrate include, for example, renewable feedstocks and biomass. Exemplary types of biomasses that can be used as feedstocks in the methods of the invention include cellulosic biomass, hemicellulosic biomass and lignin feedstocks or portions of feedstocks. Such biomass feedstocks contain, for example, carbohydrate substrates useful as carbon sources such as glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that renewable feedstocks and biomass other than those exemplified above also can be used for culturing the microbial organisms of the invention for the production of methacrylic acid.

In addition to renewable feedstocks such as those exemplified above, the methacrylic acid microbial organisms of the invention also can be modified for growth on syngas as its source of carbon. In this specific embodiment, one or more proteins or enzymes are expressed in the methacrylic acid producing organisms to provide a metabolic pathway for utilization of syngas or other gaseous carbon source.

Synthesis gas, also known as syngas or producer gas, is the major product of gasification of coal and of carbonaceous materials such as biomass materials, including agricultural crops and residues. Syngas is a mixture primarily of H₂ and CO and can be obtained from the gasification of any organic feedstock, including but not limited to coal, coal oil, natural gas, biomass, and waste organic matter. Gasification is generally carried out under a high fuel to oxygen ratio. Although largely H₂ and CO, syngas can also include CO₂ and other gases in smaller quantities. Thus, synthesis gas provides a cost effective source of gaseous carbon such as CO and, additionally, CO₂.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway catalyzes the conversion of CO and H₂ to acetyl-CoA and other products such as acetate. Organisms capable of utilizing CO and syngas also generally have the capability of utilizing CO₂ and CO₂/H₂ mixtures through the same basic set of enzymes and transformations encompassed by the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. H₂-dependent conversion of CO₂ to acetate by microorganisms was recognized long before it was revealed that CO also could be used by the same organisms and that the same pathways were involved. Many acetogens have been shown to grow in the presence of CO₂ and produce compounds such as acetate as long as hydrogen is present to supply the necessary reducing equivalents (see for example, Drake, Acetogenesis, pp. 3-60 Chapman and Hall, New York, (1994)). This can be summarized by the following equation: 2CO₂+4H₂ +nADP+nPi→CH₃COOH+2H₂O+nATP

Hence, non-naturally occurring microorganisms possessing the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway can utilize CO₂ and H₂ mixtures as well for the production of acetyl-CoA and other desired products.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway is well known in the art and consists of 12 reactions which can be separated into two branches: (1) methyl branch and (2) carbonyl branch. The methyl branch converts syngas to methyl-tetrahydrofolate (methyl-THF) whereas the carbonyl branch converts methyl-THF to acetyl-CoA. The reactions in the methyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, formate dehydrogenase, formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase, methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclodehydratase, methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. The reactions in the carbonyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes: cobalamide corrinoid/iron-sulfur protein, methyltransferase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, acetyl-CoA synthase, acetyl-CoA synthase disulfide reductase and hydrogenase. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein for introducing a sufficient number of encoding nucleic acids to generate a methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway, those skilled in the art will understand that the same engineering design also can be performed with respect to introducing at least the nucleic acids encoding the Wood-Ljungdahl enzymes absent in the host organism. Therefore, introduction of one or more encoding nucleic acids into the microbial organisms of the invention such that the modified organism contains the complete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway will confer syngas utilization ability.

Accordingly, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can be produced that secretes the biosynthesized compounds of the invention when grown on a carbon source such as a carbohydrate. Such compounds include, for example, methacrylic acid and any of the intermediate metabolites in the methacrylic acid pathway. All that is required is to engineer in one or more of the required enzyme activities to achieve biosynthesis of the desired compound or intermediate including, for example, inclusion of some or all of the methacrylic acid biosynthetic pathways. Accordingly, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces and/or secretes methacrylic acid when grown on a carbohydrate and produces and/or secretes any of the intermediate metabolites shown in the methacrylic acid pathway when grown on a carbohydrate. Intermediate metabolites that can be produced and/or excreted include 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid and 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

The methacrylic acid producing microbial organisms of the invention can initiate synthesis from an intermediate. For example, in addition to initiating synthesis from succinyl-CoA as a precursor, synthesis can be initiated from an intermediate such as (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA, (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA, methylmalonate semialdehyde or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (see Example I and FIG. 2). Alternatively, synthesis can be initiated from an intermediate such as (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA, (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA, methylmalonate semialdehyde, or 3-amino-2-methylpropionate (see Example III and FIG. 4). In a pathway having 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor, synthesis can be initiated from an intermediate such as 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, methacrylyl-CoA or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (see Example V and FIG. 6).

In a methacrylic acid pathway utilizing alpha-ketoglutarate as a precursor, synthesis can be initiated, for example, from glutamate, threo-3-methylaspartate or mesaconate (see Example VII and FIG. 8). Alternatively, synthesis can initiate from an intermediate such as 2-hydroxyglutarate, 3-methylmalate or mesaconate (see Example IX and FIG. 10). In a pathway utilizing acetyl-CoA as a precursor, synthesis can initiate, for example, from an intermediate such as acetoacetyl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, or methacrylyl-CoA (see Example XI and FIG. 12). Alternatively, synthesis can be initiated from an intermediate such as acetoacetyl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, crotonyl-CoA, butyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA and methacrylyl-CoA (see Example XIII and FIG. 13).

In a methacrylic acid pathway utilizing pyruvate as a precursor, synthesis can initiate from an intermediate such as lactate, lactoyl-CoA, acrylyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA, methylmalonate semialdehyde or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (see Example XIV and FIG. 14). In a pathway utilizing 2-ketoisovalerate as precursor, synthesis can initiate from an intermediate such as isobutyryl-CoA or methacrylyl-CoA (see Example XV and FIG. 15). In addition, synthesis can initiate from an intermediate in the conversion of pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate.

In a 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway utilizing 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor, synthesis can initiate from an intermediate such as 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA (see Example V and FIG. 6). In a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway utilizing acetyl-CoA as a precursor, synthesis can initiate, for example, from an intermediate such as acetoacetyl-CoA, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA (see Example XI and FIG. 12).

Furthermore, it is understood that additional modifications can be to a microbial organism of the invention to increase product yield. For example, metabolic modeling can be employed to determine any additional modifications that can be made to a microbial organism having a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway to increase product yield (see Example XXV). In one embodiment, modifications can be employed to increase the production of a precursor or intermediate of a 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway. As disclosed herein, modifications of metabolic pathways can be employed, including modification of central metabolic reactions and their corresponding enzymes, to increase the yield of a desired precursor, intermediate or product. For example, it has been found that increasing the expression of several enzymes by various mechanisms can be utilized to increase the yield of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. Such enzymes include, but are not limited to, 1) citrate synthase and aconitase; 2) isocitrate lyase and malate synthase; 3) pyruvate dehydrogenase and/or pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase; and 4) phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase (see Example XXV). Expression of these enzymes can be used to increase the yields of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate using the pathways from succinyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Thus, the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism which, in addition to containing a 2-hydroxisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid pathway, further is genetically modified to increase the activity of at least one protein or enzyme that increases production of a precursor or intermediate of the 2-hydroxisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid product, wherein the increase in activity is relative to the absence of the genetic modification that increases the activity of the at least one protein or enzyme. For example, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism can be genetically modified to increase the activity of at least one of an enzyme selected from citrate synthase, aconitase, isocitrate lyase, malate synthase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (see Example XXV). It is understood that the increase in activity is relative to a microbial organism that has not been genetically modified to increase the activity of such enzymes. For example, if the genetic modification to increase the activity of an enzyme is introduced into a microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway, then the increase in activity of the enzyme is relative to the host organism having a methacrylic acid pathway but in the absence of the genetic modification. It is understood that such genetic modifications include, but are not limited to, introducing an exogenous nucleic acid encoding a homologous (native) or heterologous sequence of a protein or enzyme whose activity is to be increased, either by chromosomal integration or contained on a plasmid. For example, a heterologous sequence from an organism having a desirable property that increases the activity of the protein or enzyme can be introduced, or an increased copy number of the endogenous gene can be introduced into the organism. In addition, the promoter of the endogenous gene can be replaced with a more active promoter or the native promoter can be genetically modified with mutations to increase expression and therefore activity of the protein or enzyme. Such a replacement or other genetic modification of the promoter can result in either a constitutive or inducible promoter. Additionally, a repressor of the endogenous gene can be decreased, for example, by knocking out the repressor with a gene disruption or genetically modifying its promoter to decrease expression. Thus, these and other genetic modifications disclosed herein and known in the art can be used to increase the activity of a desired protein or enzyme.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention are constructed using methods well known in the art as exemplified herein to exogenously express at least one nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme in sufficient amounts to produce methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. It is understood that the microbial organisms of the invention are cultured under conditions sufficient to produce methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can achieve biosynthesis of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid resulting in intracellular concentrations between about 0.1-200 mM or more. Generally, the intracellular concentration of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid is between about 3-150 mM, particularly between about 5-125 mM and more particularly between about 8-100 mM, including about 10 mM, 20 mM, 50 mM, 80 mM, or more. Intracellular concentrations between and above each of these exemplary ranges also can be achieved from the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention.

In some embodiments, culture conditions include anaerobic or substantially anaerobic growth or maintenance conditions. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well known in the art. Exemplary anaerobic conditions for fermentation processes are described herein and are described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/891,602, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Any of these conditions can be employed with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms as well as other anaerobic conditions well known in the art. Under such anaerobic conditions, the methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid producers can synthesize methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, respectively, at intracellular concentrations of 5-10 mM or more as well as all other concentrations exemplified herein. It is understood that, even though the above description refers to intracellular concentrations, methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid producing microbial organisms can produce methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid intracellularly and/or secrete the product into the culture medium.

The culture conditions can include, for example, liquid culture procedures as well as fermentation and other large scale culture procedures. As described herein, particularly useful yields of the biosynthetic products of the invention can be obtained under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic culture conditions.

As described herein, one exemplary growth condition for achieving biosynthesis of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid includes anaerobic culture or fermentation conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained, cultured or fermented under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic conditions. Briefly, anaerobic conditions refers to an environment devoid of oxygen. Substantially anaerobic conditions include, for example, a culture, batch fermentation or continuous fermentation such that the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium remains between 0 and 10% of saturation. Substantially anaerobic conditions also includes growing or resting cells in liquid medium or on solid agar inside a sealed chamber maintained with an atmosphere of less than 1% oxygen. The percent of oxygen can be maintained by, for example, sparging the culture with an N₂/CO₂ mixture or other suitable non-oxygen gas or gases.

The culture conditions described herein can be scaled up and grown continuously for manufacturing of methacrylic acid. Exemplary growth procedures include, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. All of these processes are well known in the art. Fermentation procedures are particularly useful for the biosynthetic production of commercial quantities of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. Generally, and as with non-continuous culture procedures, the continuous and/or near-continuous production of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid will include culturing a non-naturally occurring methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid producing organism of the invention in sufficient nutrients and medium to sustain and/or nearly sustain growth in an exponential phase. Continuous culture under such conditions can be include, for example, 1 day, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 days or more. Additionally, continuous culture can include 1 week, 2, 3, 4 or 5 or more weeks and up to several months. Alternatively, organisms of the invention can be cultured for hours, if suitable for a particular application. It is to be understood that the continuous and/or near-continuous culture conditions also can include all time intervals in between these exemplary periods. It is further understood that the time of culturing the microbial organism of the invention is for a sufficient period of time to produce a sufficient amount of product for a desired purpose.

Fermentation procedures are well known in the art. Briefly, fermentation for the biosynthetic production of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid can be utilized in, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. Examples of batch and continuous fermentation procedures are well known in the art.

In addition to the above fermentation procedures using the methacrylic acid producers of the invention for continuous production of substantial quantities of methacrylic acid, the methacrylic acid producers also can be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesis procedures to convert the product to other compounds or the product can be separated from the fermentation culture and sequentially subjected to chemical conversion to convert the product to other compounds, if desired. Furthermore, in addition to the above fermentation procedures using the 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or 2-hydroxyisobutyrate producers of the invention for continuous production of substantial quantities of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, respectively, the 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or 2-hydroxyisobutyrate producers also can be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesis procedures to convert the product to other compounds or the product can be separated from the fermentation culture and sequentially subjected to chemical conversion to convert the product to other compounds, if desired.

One consideration for bioprocessing is whether to use a batch or continuous fermentation scheme. One difference between the two schemes that will influence the amount of product produced is the presence of a preparation, lag, and stationary phase for the batch scheme in addition to the exponential growth phase. In contrast, continuous processes are kept in a state of constant exponential growth and, if properly operated, can run for many months at a time. For growth-associated and mixed-growth-associated product formation, continuous processes provide much higher productivities (i.e., dilution rate times cell mass) due to the elimination of the preparation, lag, and stationary phases.

Despite advantages in productivity, many more batch processes are in operation than continuous processes for a number of reasons. First, for non-growth associated product formation, the productivity of a batch system can significantly exceed that of a continuous process because the latter would have to operate at very low dilution rates. Next, production strains generally have undergone modifications to their genetic material to improve their biochemical or protein production capabilities. These specialized strains are likely to grow less rapidly than their parental complements whereas continuous processes such as those employing chemostats (fermenters operated in continuous mode) impose large selection pressures for the fastest growing cells. Cells containing recombinant DNA or carrying point mutations leading to the desired overproduction phenotype are susceptible to back-mutation into the original less productive parental strain. It also is possible for strains having single gene deletions to develop compensatory mutations that will tend to restore the wild-type growth phenotype. The faster growing cells usually out-compete their more productive counterparts for limiting nutrients, drastically reducing productivity. Batch processes, on the other hand, limit the number of generations available by not reusing cells at the end of each cycle, thus decreasing the probability of the production strain reverting back to its wild-type phenotype. Finally, continuous processes are more difficult to operate long-term due to potential engineering obstacles such as equipment failure and foreign organism contamination. The consequences of such failures also are much more considerable for a continuous process than with a batch culture.

For small-volume production of specialty chemicals and/or proteins, the productivity increases of continuous processes rarely outweigh the risks associated with strain stability and reliability. However, for the production of large-volume, growth-associated products such as 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid, the increases in productivity for a continuous process can result in significant economic gains when compared to a batch process. Although the engineering obstacles associated with continuous bioprocess operation would always be present, the strain stability concerns can be overcome through metabolic engineering strategies that reroute metabolic pathways to reduce or avoid negative selective pressures and favor production of the target product during the exponential growth phase.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling can be utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling can also be used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of methacrylic acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

One computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthesis of a desired product is the OptKnock computational framework, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003). OptKnock is a metabolic modeling and simulation program that suggests gene deletion strategies that result in genetically stable microorganisms which overproduce the target product. Specifically, the framework examines the complete metabolic and/or biochemical network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene deletions or other functional gene disruption, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, when gene deletions are constructed there is a negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome. Therefore, this computational methodology can be used to either identify alternative pathways that lead to biosynthesis of a desired product or used in connection with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms for further optimization of biosynthesis of a desired product.

Briefly, OptKnock is a term used herein to refer to a computational method and system for modeling cellular metabolism. The OptKnock program relates to a framework of models and methods that incorporate particular constraints into flux balance analysis (FBA) models. These constraints include, for example, qualitative kinetic information, qualitative regulatory information, and/or DNA microarray experimental data. OptKnock also computes solutions to various metabolic problems by, for example, tightening the flux boundaries derived through flux balance models and subsequently probing the performance limits of metabolic networks in the presence of gene additions or deletions. OptKnock computational framework allows the construction of model formulations that enable an effective query of the performance limits of metabolic networks and provides methods for solving the resulting mixed-integer linear programming problems. The metabolic modeling and simulation methods referred to herein as OptKnock are described in, for example, U.S. publication 2002/0168654, filed Jan. 10, 2002, in International Patent No. PCT/US02/00660, filed Jan. 10, 2002, and U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007.

Another computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthetic production of a product is a metabolic modeling and simulation system termed SimPheny®. This computational method and system is described in, for example, U.S. publication 2003/0233218, filed Jun. 14, 2002, and in International Patent Application No. PCT/US03/18838, filed Jun. 13, 2003. SimPheny® is a computational system that can be used to produce a network model in silico and to simulate the flux of mass, energy or charge through the chemical reactions of a biological system to define a solution space that contains any and all possible functionalities of the chemical reactions in the system, thereby determining a range of allowed activities for the biological system. This approach is referred to as constraints-based modeling because the solution space is defined by constraints such as the known stoichiometry of the included reactions as well as reaction thermodynamic and capacity constraints associated with maximum fluxes through reactions. The space defined by these constraints can be interrogated to determine the phenotypic capabilities and behavior of the biological system or of its biochemical components. Analysis methods such as convex analysis, linear programming and the calculation of extreme pathways as described, for example, in Schilling et al., J. Theor. Biol. 203:229-248 (2000); Schilling et al., Biotech. Bioeng. 71:286-306 (2000) and Schilling et al., Biotech. Prog. 15:288-295 (1999), can be used to determine such phenotypic capabilities.

As described above, one constraints-based method used in the computational programs applicable to the invention is flux balance analysis. Flux balance analysis is based on flux balancing in a steady state condition and can be performed as described in, for example, Varma and Palsson, Biotech. Bioeng. 12:994-998 (1994). Flux balance approaches have been applied to reaction networks to simulate or predict systemic properties of, for example, adipocyte metabolism as described in Fell and Small, J. Biochem. 138:781-786 (1986), acetate secretion from E. coli under ATP maximization conditions as described in Majewski and Domach, Biotech. Bioeng. 35:732-738 (1990) or ethanol secretion by yeast as described in Vanrolleghem et al., Biotech. Prog. 12:434-448 (1996). Additionally, this approach can be used to predict or simulate the growth of S. cerevisiae on a variety of single-carbon sources as well as the metabolism of H. influenzae as described in Edwards and Palsson, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97:5528-5533 (2000), Edwards and Palsson, J. Bio. Chem. 274:17410-17416 (1999) and Edwards et al., Nature Biotech. 19:125-130 (2001).

These computational approaches are consistent with biological realities because biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result in many different ways. Biological systems are designed through evolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamental constraints that all living systems must face. Therefore, constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities. Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on a network model via the tightening of constraints results in a reduction in the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision with which physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will be able to apply various computational frameworks for metabolic modeling and simulation to design and implement biosynthesis of a desired compound in host microbial organisms. Such metabolic modeling and simulation methods include, for example, the computational systems exemplified above as SimPheny® and OptKnock. For illustration of the invention, some methods are described herein with reference to the OptKnock computation framework for modeling and simulation. Those skilled in the art will know how to apply the identification, design and implementation of the metabolic alterations using OptKnock to any of such other metabolic modeling and simulation computational frameworks and methods well known in the art.

The ability of a cell or organism to obligatory couple growth to the production of a biochemical product can be illustrated in the context of the biochemical production limits of a typical metabolic network calculated using an in silico model. These limits are obtained by fixing the uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s) to their experimentally measured value(s) and calculating the maximum and minimum rates of biochemical production at each attainable level of growth. As shown in FIG. 16, the production of a desired biochemical generally is in direct competition with biomass formation for intracellular resources. Under these circumstances, enhanced rates of biochemical production will necessarily result in sub-maximal growth rates. The knockouts suggested by the metabolic modeling and simulation programs such as OptKnock, as disclosed herein, are designed to restrict the allowable solution boundaries forcing a change in metabolic behavior from the wild-type strain as depicted in FIG. 16. Although the actual solution boundaries for a given strain will expand or contract as the substrate uptake rate(s) increase or decrease, each experimental point will lie within its calculated solution boundary. Plots such as these allow accurate predictions of how close the designed strains are to their performance limits which also indicates how much room is available for improvement.

The OptKnock mathematical framework is exemplified herein for pinpointing gene deletions leading to growth-coupled biochemical production as illustrated in FIG. 16. The procedure builds upon constraint-based metabolic modeling which narrows the range of possible phenotypes that a cellular system can display through the successive imposition of governing physico-chemical constraints (Price et al., Nat Rev Microbiol, 2: 886-97 (2004)). As described above, constraint-based models and simulations are well known in the art and generally invoke the optimization of a particular cellular objective, subject to network stoichiometry, to suggest a likely flux distribution.

Briefly, the maximization of a cellular objective quantified as an aggregate reaction flux for a steady state metabolic network comprising a set N={1, . . . , N} of metabolites and a set M={1, . . . , M} of metabolic reactions is expressed mathematically as follows:

-   -   maximize v_(cellular objective)     -   subject to

${{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M}{S_{ij}v_{j}}} = 0},{\forall{i \in {??}}}$ v_(substrate) = v_(substrate _ uptake)  mmol/gDW ⋅ hr

-   -   ∀iϵ{limiting substrate(s)}         -   v_(atp)≥v_(atp) _(_) _(main) mmol/gDW·hr         -   v_(j)≥0, ∀ jϵ{irrev.reactions}             where S_(ij) is the stoichiometric coefficient of metabolite             i in reaction j, v_(j) is the flux of reaction j,             v_(substrate) _(_) _(uptake) represents the assumed or             measured uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s), and             v_(atp) _(_) _(main) is the non-growth associated ATP             maintenance requirement. The vector v includes both internal             and external fluxes. In this study, the cellular objective             is often assumed to be a drain of biosynthetic precursors in             the ratios required for biomass formation, Neidhardt, F. C.             et al., 2nd ed. 1996, Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. 2 v. (xx,             2822, 1xxvi). The fluxes are generally reported per 1 gDW·hr             (gram of dry weight times hour) such that biomass formation             is expressed as g biomass produced/gDW·hr or l/hr.

The modeling of gene deletions, and thus reaction elimination, first employs the incorporation of binary variables into the constraint-based approach framework, Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 74: 364-375 (2001), Burgard et al., Biotechnol Prog, 17: 791-797 (2001). These binary variables,

$y_{j} = \left\{ {\begin{matrix} {1,{{if}\mspace{14mu}{reaction}\mspace{14mu}{flux}\mspace{14mu} v_{j}\mspace{14mu}{is}\mspace{14mu}{active}}} \\ {0,{{if}\mspace{14mu}{reaction}\mspace{14mu}{flux}\mspace{14mu} v_{j}\mspace{14mu}{is}\mspace{14mu}{not}\mspace{14mu}{active}}} \end{matrix},{\forall{j \in M}}} \right.$ assume a value of 1 if reaction j is active and a value of 0 if it is inactive. The following constraint, v _(j) ^(min) ·y _(j) ≤v _(j) v _(j) ^(max) ·y _(j) ,∀jϵM ensures that reaction flux v_(j) is set to zero only if variable y_(j) is equal to zero. Alternatively, when y_(j) is equal to one, v_(j) is free to assume any value between a lower v_(j) ^(min) and an upper v_(j) ^(max) bound. Here, v_(j) ^(min) and v_(j) ^(max) are identified by minimizing and maximizing, respectively, every reaction flux subject to the network constraints described above, Mahadevan et al., Metab Eng, 5: 264-76 (2003).

Optimal gene/reaction knockouts are identified by solving a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions (y_(j)=1) such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the chemical of interest. Schematically, this bilevel optimization problem is illustrated in FIG. 2. Mathematically, this bilevel optimization problem is expressed as the following bilevel mixed-integer optimization problem:

$\begin{matrix} {maximize} & v_{chemical} & ({OptKnock}) \end{matrix}$ $\begin{pmatrix} \underset{v_{j}}{{subject}\mspace{14mu}{to}} & {maximize} & v_{biomass} & \; \\ \; & {{subject}\mspace{14mu}{to}} & {{{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M}{S_{ij}v_{j}}} = 0},} & {\forall{i \in {??}}} \\ \; & \; & {v_{substrate} = v_{{substrate}\;\_\;{uptake}}} & {\forall{i \in \left\{ {{limiting}\mspace{14mu}{{substrate}(s)}} \right\}}} \\ \; & \; & {v_{atp} \geq v_{{atp}\;\_\;{main}}} & \; \\ \; & \; & {v_{biomass} \geq v_{biomass}^{target}} & \; \end{pmatrix}$ v_(j)^(m i n) ⋅ y_(j) ≤ v_(j) ≤ v_(j)^(ma x) ⋅ y_(j), ∀j ∈ ℳ  = K y_(j) ∈ {0, 1}, ∀j ∈ ℳ where v_(chemical) is the production of the desired target product, for example 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, methacrylic acid, or other biochemical product, and K is the number of allowable knockouts. Note that setting K equal to zero returns the maximum biomass solution of the complete network, while setting K equal to one identifies the single gene/reaction knockout (y_(j)=0) such that the resulting network involves the maximum overproduction given its maximum biomass yield. The final constraint ensures that the resulting network meets a minimum biomass yield. Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 647-57 (2003), provide a more detailed description of the model formulation and solution procedure. Problems containing hundreds of binary variables can be solved in the order of minutes to hours using CPLEX 8.0, GAMS: The Solver Manuals. 2003: GAMS Development Corporation, accessed via the GAMS, Brooke et al., GAMS Development Corporation (1998), modeling environment on an IBM RS6000-270 workstation. The OptKnock framework has already been able to identify promising gene deletion strategies for biochemical overproduction, Burgard et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 647-57 (2003), Pharkya et al., Biotechnol Bioeng, 84: 887-899 (2003), and establishes a systematic framework that will naturally encompass future improvements in metabolic and regulatory modeling frameworks.

The methods described above will provide one set of metabolic reactions to disrupt. Elimination of each reaction within the set or metabolic modification can result in a desired product as an obligatory product during the growth phase of the organism. Because the reactions are known, a solution to the bilevel OptKnock problem also will provide the associated gene or genes encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze each reaction within the set of reactions. Identification of a set of reactions and their corresponding genes encoding the enzymes participating in each reaction is generally an automated process, accomplished through correlation of the reactions with a reaction database having a relationship between enzymes and encoding genes.

Once identified, the set of reactions that are to be disrupted in order to achieve production of a desired product are implemented in the target cell or organism by functional disruption of at least one gene encoding each metabolic reaction within the set. One particularly useful means to achieve functional disruption of the reaction set is by deletion of each encoding gene. However, in some instances, it can be beneficial to disrupt the reaction by other genetic aberrations including, for example, mutation, deletion of regulatory regions such as promoters or cis binding sites for regulatory factors, or by truncation of the coding sequence at any of a number of locations. These latter aberrations, resulting in less than total deletion of the gene set can be useful, for example, when rapid assessments of the coupling of a product are desired or when genetic reversion is less likely to occur.

To identify additional productive solutions to the above described bilevel OptKnock problem which lead to further sets of reactions to disrupt or metabolic modifications that can result in the biosynthesis, including growth-coupled biosynthesis of a desired product, an optimization method, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This method proceeds by iteratively solving the OptKnock problem exemplified above with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration. Integer cut constraints effectively prevent the solution procedure from choosing the exact same set of reactions identified in any previous iteration that obligatorily couples product biosynthesis to growth. For example, if a previously identified growth-coupled metabolic modification specifies reactions 1, 2, and 3 for disruption, then the following constraint prevents the same reactions from being simultaneously considered in subsequent solutions. The integer cut method is well known in the art and can be found described in, for example, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 17:791-797 (2001). As with all methods described herein with reference to their use in combination with the OptKnock computational framework for metabolic modeling and simulation, the integer cut method of reducing redundancy in iterative computational analysis also can be applied with other computational frameworks well known in the art including, for example, SimPheny®.

Constraints of the above form preclude identification of larger reaction sets that include previously identified sets. For example, employing the integer cut optimization method above in a further iteration would preclude identifying a quadruple reaction set that specified reactions 1, 2, and 3 for disruption since these reactions had been previously identified. To ensure identification of all possible reaction sets leading to growth-coupled production of a product, a modification of the integer cut method was employed.

Briefly, the modified integer cut procedure begins with iteration ‘zero’ which calculates the maximum production of the desired biochemical at optimal growth for a wild-type network. This calculation corresponds to an OptKnock solution with K equaling 0. Next, single knockouts are considered and the two parameter sets, objstore_(iter) and ystore_(iter j), are introduced to store the objective function (v_(chemical)) and reaction on-off information (y_(j)), respectively, at each iteration, iter. The following constraints are then successively added to the OptKnock formulation at each iteration. v _(chemical)≥objstore_(iter) +ϵ−M·Σ _(jϵystore) _(iter,j) ₌₀ y _(j)

In the above equation, ϵ and Mare a small and a large numbers, respectively. In general, ϵ can be set at about 0.01 and M can be set at about 1000. However, numbers smaller and/or larger then these numbers also can be used. M ensures that the constraint can be binding only for previously identified knockout strategies, while ϵ ensures that adding knockouts to a previously identified strategy must lead to an increase of at least ϵ in biochemical production at optimal growth. The approach moves onto double deletions whenever a single deletion strategy fails to improve upon the wild-type strain. Triple deletions are then considered when no double deletion strategy improves upon the wild-type strain, and so on. The end result is a ranked list, represented as desired biochemical production at optimal growth, of distinct deletion strategies that differ from each other by at least one knockout. This optimization procedure as well as the identification of a wide variety of reaction sets that, when disrupted, lead to the growth-coupled production of a biochemical product are exemplified in detail further below. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that the methods and metabolic engineering designs exemplified herein are applicable to the obligatory coupling of cell or microorganism growth to any biochemical product.

The methods exemplified herein allow the construction of cells and organisms that biosynthetically produce a desired product, including the obligatory coupling of production of a target biochemical product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. Therefore, the computational methods described herein allow the identification and implementation of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method selected from OptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include, for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/or functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion.

As discussed above, the OptKnock methodology was developed on the premise that mutant microbial networks can be evolved towards their computationally predicted maximum-growth phenotypes when subjected to long periods of growth selection. In other words, the approach leverages an organism's ability to self-optimize under selective pressures. The OptKnock framework allows for the exhaustive enumeration of gene deletion combinations that force a coupling between biochemical production and cell growth based on network stoichiometry. The identification of optimal gene/reaction knockouts requires the solution of a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the biochemical of interest (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)).

An in silico stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism can be employed to identify essential genes for metabolic pathways as exemplified previously and described in, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379. As disclosed herein, the OptKnock mathematical framework can be applied to pinpoint gene deletions leading to the growth-coupled production of a desired product. Further, the solution of the bilevel OptKnock problem provides only one set of deletions. To enumerate all meaningful solutions, that is, all sets of knockouts leading to growth-coupled production formation, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration, as discussed above.

As disclosed herein, an OptKnock strategy was used to identify gene knockouts to couple growth with production of a desired product such as 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid (see Examples XXI to XXIII). While identified using an OptKnock strategy, it is understood that any suitable modeling system, including a system such as SimPheny™ can be used to identity gene knockouts to develop strains able to couple production of a desired product to growth, as disclosed herein. Any of the gene deletion strategies disclosed herein can be combined, as appropriate, with any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms disclosed herein having a pathway for production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid to increase production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid.

Thus the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising one or more gene disruptions, the one or more gene disruptions occurring in genes encoding proteins or enzymes where the one or more gene disruptions confer increased production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid in said organism. As disclosed herein, the gene disruptions can confer production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid that is growth-coupled or not growth-coupled. For example, the one or more gene disruptions can encode a protein or enzyme listed in Tables 10 or 11 (see Examples XXII and XXIII). In a particular embodiment, the one or more gene disruptions can encode proteins or enzymes selected from the group consisting of malate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase. In an additional embodiment, the organism can further comprise one or more gene disruptions encoding proteins or enzymes selected from the group consisting of aspartase, pyruvate formate lyase, NAD(P) transhydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, ATP synthase, phosphoenolpyruvate:pyruvate phosphotransferase system, glutamate dehydrogenase, phosphotransacetylase, acetate kinase, 6-phosphogluconolactonase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase and NADH dehydrogenase.

Thus, the invention provides an organism with an improved yield of MAA or 3-HIB (see Examples XXII and XXIII) that contains functional disruptions in alcohol dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, and lactate dehydrogenase (Tables 6 and 8, Design 1). Additionally provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in any of glutamate dehydrogenase, aspartase, NAD(P) transhydrogenase or NADH dehydrogenase (Table 6, Designs 2, 7, 10, 13; Table 8, Designs 2, 8). Further provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in aspartase and any of NAD(P) transhydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, ATP synthase or pyruvate formate lyase (Table 6, Designs 3, 5; Table 8, Designs 3, 5). Also provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in pyruvate formate lyase and any of NAD(P) transhydrogenase or glutamate dehydrogenase (Table 6, Design 4; Table 8, Design 4). Additionally provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in ATP synthase and in any of pyruvate formate lyase, D-glucose transport via PEP:Pyr PTS, 6-phosphogluconolactonase or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Table 6, Design 6; Table 8, Design 6, 7). Also provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in glutamate dehydrogenase and pyruvate formate lyase (Table 6 Design 8). Further provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in any of acetate kinase or phosphotransacetylase (Table 6, Design 9). Additionally provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in NAD(P) transhydrogenase and in any of 6-phosphogluconolactonase or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Table 6, Design 11; Table 8, Design 9 w/THD2). Further provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in glutamate dehydrogenase and in any of 6-phosphogluconolactonase or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Table 8, Design 9 w/GLUDy). Also provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in pyruvate formate lyase (Table 6, Design 12). Additionally provided is an organism with an additional functional disruption in NADH dehydrogenase and in any of acetate kinase or phosphotransacetylase (Table 6, Design 14).

As disclosed herein, the one or more gene disruptions can comprises a deletion of the one or more genes. Such methods for gene disruptions, including gene deletions, are well known to those skilled in the art, as disclosed herein. If desired, the cells can be cultured in a substantially anaerobic culture medium.

Also provided are methods for producing 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid using the organisms disclosed herein and discussed above and in Examples XXII and XXIII having one or more gene disruptions. Thus, the invention provides a method for producing 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising one or more gene disruptions, the one or more gene disruptions occurring in genes encoding a protein or enzyme wherein the one or more gene disruptions confer obligatory coupling of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid production to growth of the organism when the gene disruption reduces an activity of the protein or enzyme, whereby said one or more gene disruptions confers stable growth-coupled production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid onto the organism.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that to disrupt an enzymatic reaction it is necessary to disrupt the catalytic activity of the one or more enzymes involved in the reaction. Disruption can occur by a variety of means including, for example, deletion of an encoding gene or incorporation of a genetic alteration in one or more of the encoding gene sequences. The encoding genes targeted for disruption can be one, some, or all of the genes encoding enzymes involved in the catalytic activity. For example, where a single enzyme is involved in a targeted catalytic activity disruption can occur by a genetic alteration that reduces or destroys the catalytic activity of the encoded gene product. Similarly, where the single enzyme is multimeric, including heteromeric, disruption can occur by a genetic alteration that reduces or destroys the function of one or all subunits of the encoded gene products. Destruction of activity can be accomplished by loss of the binding activity of one or more subunits in order to form an active complex, by destruction of the catalytic subunit of the multimeric complex or by both. Other functions of multimeric protein association and activity also can be targeted in order to disrupt a metabolic reaction of the invention. Such other functions are well known to those skilled in the art. Further, some or all of the functions of a single polypeptide or multimeric complex can be disrupted according to the invention in order to reduce or abolish the catalytic activity of one or more enzymes involved in a reaction or metabolic modification of the invention. Similarly, some or all of enzymes involved in a reaction or metabolic modification of the invention can be disrupted so long as the targeted reaction is destroyed.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that an enzymatic reaction can be disrupted by reducing or eliminating reactions encoded by a common gene and/or by one or more orthologs of that gene exhibiting similar or substantially the same activity. Reduction of both the common gene and all orthologs can lead to complete abolishment of any catalytic activity of a targeted reaction. However, disruption of either the common gene or one or more orthologs can lead to a reduction in the catalytic activity of the targeted reaction sufficient to promote coupling of growth to product biosynthesis. Exemplified herein are both the common genes encoding catalytic activities for a variety of metabolic modifications as well as their orthologs. Those skilled in the art will understand that disruption of some or all of the genes encoding a enzyme of a targeted metabolic reaction can be practiced in the methods of the invention and incorporated into the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention in order to achieve the growth-coupled product production.

In some embodiments, the gene disruption can include a complete gene deletion. In some embodiments other means to disrupt a gene include, for example, frameshifting by omission or addition of oligonucleotides or by mutations that render the gene inoperable. One skilled in the art will recognize the advantages of gene deletions, however, because of the stability it may confer to the non-naturally occurring organism from reverting to its wild-type. In particular, the gene disruptions are selected from the gene set that includes genes detailed herein.

Each of the proposed strains can be supplemented with additional deletions if it is determined that the predicted strain designs do not sufficiently couple the formation of the product with biomass formation. Alternatively, some other enzymes not known to possess significant activity under the growth conditions can become active due to adaptive evolution or random mutagenesis and can also be knocked out. However, the list of gene deletion sets provided here serves as a starting point for construction of high-yielding growth-coupled 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid production strains.

One skilled in the art will recognize the ability to also produce MAA, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate, by non-growth-coupled production by providing a non-producing growth phase, followed by a non-growth production phase, for example. The results described herein indicate that combinations of gene deletions or functional disruptions of genes significantly improve the MAA, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate production capabilities of E. coli and other organisms. The strain design pathways are equally applicable if a microbial organism other than E. coli is chosen as the production host, even if the organism naturally lacks the activity or exhibits low activity of a subset of the gene products marked for disruption. In the latter case, disruptions can be introduced to eliminate or lessen the enzymatic activities of the gene products that are naturally present in the chosen production host. In some embodiments, growth-coupled production of MAA, 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate for the in silico determined metabolic pathways is confirmed by construction of strains having the designed metabolic genotype. These metabolically engineered cells or organisms can also be subjected to adaptive evolution to further augment growth-coupled product production. In some embodiments, the engineered cells or organisms can also incorporate additional copies of beneficial genes to increase flux through a particular metabolic pathway. Alternatively, exogenous gene insertions from another organism can be used to install functionality that is not present in the host organism.

The design strategies described herein are useful not only for enhancing growth coupled production, but they are also well-suited for enhancing non-growth coupled production because they link the production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid to energy generation and/or redox balance. Exemplary non-growth coupled production methods include implementing an aerobic growth phase followed by an anaerobic production phase. For example, Vemuri et al., (J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 28(6):325-332 (2002)) describe a dual-phase process for the production of succinate in E. Coli. Okino et al. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 81(3):459-464(2008)) describe a similar non-growth coupled production process in a strain of Corynebacterium glutamicum strain.

Another such method involves withholding an essential nutrient from a propagated cell culture, thereby limiting growth, but not precluding production as described in Durner et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66(8):3408-3414(2000). Yet another strategy aimed at decoupling growth from production involves replacing the growth substrate with another compound that is more slowly metabolizable as described in Altamirano et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 76:351-360 (2001). Growth decoupled-product formation can also be brought about by specific genetic modifications as described in Blombach et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 79:471-479 (2008).

It is understood that modifications which do not substantially affect the activity of the various embodiments of this invention are also provided within the definition of the invention provided herein. Accordingly, the following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit the present invention.

Example I Pathway for Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to MAA via 3-Hydroxyisobutyrate

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthesis pathway from succinyl-CoA to methacrylic acid via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate.

One exemplary pathway for MAA synthesis proceeds from succinyl-CoA (see FIG. 2). This pathway uses at least three and at most five enzymatic steps to form MAA from succinyl-CoA. The pathway is redox-balanced, indicating that it can potentially lead to the maximum MAA yield of 1.33 mol per mol of glucose under anaerobic conditions with no byproduct formation. Moreover, the pathway is energetically efficient and can generate 0.5 ATP per mole of glucose metabolized to MAA if phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase (PEPCK) activity is assumed irreversible (that is, cannot catalyze the ATP-generating carboxylation of PEP to oxaloacetate) or 1.72 ATP if PEPCK is assumed reversible. The latter ATP yield is comparable to the ATP yield from the formation of lactate or ethanol from glucose, that is, 2 ATP per glucose metabolized, indicating that methacrylate fermentation can generate sufficient energy for cell growth and maintenance.

In this pathway (see FIG. 2), succinyl-CoA is first converted to (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA, which is potentially converted to (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA by an epimerase. Either the (R)- or (S)-stereoisomer of methylmalonyl-CoA is then reduced to (R)- or (S)-3-hydroxyisobutyrate, respectively, by either a pair of enzymes (as shown in FIG. 2) or a single enzyme that exhibits acyl-CoA reductase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities. The pathway from succinyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate has also been described in WO 2007/141208. In the final step, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate is dehydrated to form MAA.

Successfully engineering this pathway involves identifying an appropriate set of enzymes with sufficient activity and specificity. This entails identifying an appropriate set of enzymes, cloning their corresponding genes into a production host, optimizing fermentation conditions, and assaying for product formation following fermentation. To engineer a production host for the production of methacrylic acid, one or more exogenous DNA sequence(s) are expressed in microorganisms. In addition, the microorganisms can have endogenous gene(s) functionally deleted. These modifications allow the production of methacrylic acid using renewable feedstock.

Below is described a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes capable of encoding enzymes that catalyze each step of the desired pathway. Although described using E. coli as a host organism to engineer the pathway, essentially any suitable host organism can be used. Specifically listed are genes that are native to E. coli as well as genes in other organisms that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations when properly cloned and expressed.

Referring to FIG. 2, step 1 involves methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (EC 5.4.99.2). In the first step, succinyl-CoA is converted into methylmalonyl-CoA by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM). In E. coli, the reversible adenosylcobalamin-dependant mutase participates in a three-step pathway leading to the conversion of succinate to propionate (Haller et al., Biochemistry 39:4622-4629 (2000)). Overexpression of the MCM gene candidate along with the deletion of YgfG can be used to prevent the decarboxylation of methylmalonyl-CoA to propionyl-CoA and to maximize the methylmalonyl-CoA available for MAA synthesis. MCM is encoded by genes scpA in Escherichia coli (Bobik and Rasche, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 375:344-349 (2003); Haller et al., Biochemistry 39:4622-4629 (2000)) and mutA in Homo sapiens (Padovani and Banerjee, Biochemistry 45:9300-9306 (2006)). In several other organisms MCM contains alpha and beta subunits and is encoded by two genes. Exemplary gene candidates encoding the two-subunit protein are Propionibacterium fredenreichii sp. shermani mutA and mutB (Korotkova and Lidstrom, J. Biol. Chem. 279:13652-13658 (2004)) and Methylobacterium extorquens mcmA and mcmB (Korotkova and Lidstrom, supra, 2004). The protein sequences of these genes can be identified by their corresponding GenBank accession numbers.

Gene GenBank ID Organism scpA NP_417392.1 Escherichia coli K12 mutA P22033.3 Homo sapiens mutA P11652.3 Propionibacterium fredenreichii sp. shermanii mutB P11653.3 Propionibacterium fredenreichii sp. shermanii mcmA Q84FZ1 Methylobacterium extorquens mcmB Q6TMA2 Methylobacterium extorquens

These sequences can be used to identify homologue proteins in GenBank or other databases through sequence similarity searches (for example, BLASTp). The resulting homologue proteins and their corresponding gene sequences provide additional exogenous DNA sequences for transformation into E. coli or other suitable host microorganisms to generate production hosts. Additional gene candidates include the following, which were identified based on high homology to the E. coli spcA gene product.

Gene GenBank ID Organism sbm NP_838397.1 Shigella flexneri SARI_04585 ABX24358.1 Salmonella enterica YfreA_01000861 ZP_00830776.1 Yersinia frederiksenii

There exists evidence that genes adjacent to the methylmalonyl-CoA mutase catalytic genes contribute to maximum activity. For example, it has been demonstrated that the meaB gene from M. extorquens forms a complex with methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, stimulates in vitro mutase activity, and possibly protects it from irreversible inactivation (Korotkova and Lidstrom, J. Biol. Chem. 279:13652-13658 (2004)). The M. extorquens meaB gene product is highly similar to the product of the E. coli argK gene (BLASTp: 45% identity, e-value: 4e-67), which is adjacent to scpA on the chromosome. No sequence for a meaB homolog in P. freudenreichii is catalogued in GenBank. However, the Propionibacterium acnes KPA171202 gene product, YP_055310.1, is 51% identical to the M. extorquens meaB protein and its gene is also adjacent to the methylmalonyl-CoA mutase gene on the chromosome.

Gene GenBank ID Organism argK AAC75955.1 Escherichia coli K12 YP_055310.1 Propionibacterium acnes KPA171202 meaB 2QM8_B Methylobacterium extorquens

E. coli can synthesize adenosylcobalamin, a necessary cofactor for this reaction, only when supplied with the intermediates cobinamide or cobalamin (Lawrence and Roth. J. Bacteriol. 177:6371-6380 (1995); Lawrence and Roth, Genetics 142:11-24 (1996)). Alternatively, the ability to synthesize cobalamins de novo has been conferred upon E. coli following the expression of heterologous genes (Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)).

Referring to FIG. 2, step 2 involves methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase (EC 5.1.99.1). The second enzyme in the pathway, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase (MMCE), converts (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA to (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA. MMCE is an essential enzyme in the breakdown of odd-numbered fatty acids and of the amino acids valine, isoleucine, and methionine. Methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase activity is not believed to be encoded in the E. coli genome (Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)), but is present in other organisms such as Homo sapiens (YqjC) (Fuller and Leadlay, Biochem. J. 213:643-650 (1983)), Rattus norvegicus (Mcee) (Bobik and Rasche, J. Biol. Chem. 276:37194-37198 (2001)), Propionibacterium shermanii (AF454511) (Fuller. and Leadlay, Biochem. J. 213:643-650 (1983); Haller et al., Biochemistry 39:4622-4629 (2000); McCarthy et al., Structure 9:637-646.2001)) and Caenorhabditis elegans (mmce) (Kuhnl et al., FEBS J. 272:1465-1477 (2005)). This enzymatic step may or may not be necessary depending upon the stereospecificity of the enzyme or enzymes used for the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (steps 3-4 in FIG. 2). Additional gene candidates in microorganisms, such as AE016877 in Bacillus cereus, have high sequence homology but have not been experimentally verified.

Gene GenBank ID Organism MCEE Q96PE7.1 Homo sapiens Mcee_predicted NP_001099811.1 Rattus norvegicus AF454511 AAL57846.1 Propionibacterium fredenreichii sp. shermanii mmce AAT92095.1 Caenorhabditis elegans AE016877 AAP08811.1 Bacillus cereus ATCC 14579

Referring to FIG. 2, step 3 involves methylmalonyl-CoA reductase (EC 1.2.1.-). As shown in FIG. 2, the reduction of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding alcohol, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate, can proceed by two enzymatic steps. The first step, conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to methylmalonic semialdehyde, is accomplished by a CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase. An enzyme encoded by a malonyl-CoA reductase gene from Sulfolobus tokodaii (Alber et. al., J. Bacteriol. 188(24):8551-8559 (2006)), has been shown to catalyze the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde (WO2007141208). A similar enzyme exists in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et. al., J. Bacteriol. 188(24):8551-8559 (2006)). Several additional CoA dehydrogenases are capable also of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville. J. Bacteriol. 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is also a good candidate as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate the branched-chain compound isobutyraldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)).

Gene GenBank ID Organism mcr NP_378167 Sulfolobus tokodaii mcr YP_001190808.1 Metallosphaera sedula acr1 YP_047869.1 Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 AAC45217 Acinetobacter baylyi acr1 BAB85476.1 Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1 sucD P38947.1 Clostridium kluyveri bphG BAA03892.1 Pseudomonas sp

Referring to FIG. 2, step 4 involves 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.31). 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reversible oxidation of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methylmalonate semialdehyde. This enzyme participates in valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation and has been identified in bacteria, eukaryotes, and mammals. The enzyme encoded by P84067 from Thermus thermophilus HB8 has been structurally characterized (Lokanath et al., J. Mol. Biol. 352:905-917 (2005)). The reversibility of the human 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase was demonstrated using isotopically-labeled substrate (Manning and Pollitt, Biochem. J. 231:481-484 (1985)). Additional genes encoding this enzyme include 3hidh in Homo sapiens (Hawes et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)) and Oryctolagus cuniculus (Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996); Hawes et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)), mmsb in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and dhat in Pseudomonas putida (Aberhart and Hsu. J Chem. Soc. [Perkin 1] 6:1404-1406 (1979); Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 67:438-441 (2003); Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996)).

Gene GenBank ID Organism P84067 P84067 Thermus thermophilus mmsb P28811.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa dhat Q59477.1 Pseudomonas putida 3hidh P31937.2 Homo sapiens 3hidh P32185.1 Oryctolagus cuniculus

Referring to FIG. 2, as an alternative, steps 3 and 4 can involve a combined Alcohol/Aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.-). Methylmalonyl-CoA can be reduced to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate in one step by a multifunctional enzyme with dual acyl-CoA reductase and alcohol dehydrogenase activity. No evidence for the direct conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate has been reported. However, this reaction is similar to the common conversions such as acetyl-CoA to ethanol and butyryl-CoA to butanol, which are catalyzed by CoA-dependant enzymes with both alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase activities. Gene candidates include the E. coli adhE (Kessler et al., FEBS Lett. 281:59-63 (1991)) and C. acetobutylicum bdh I and bdh II (Walter, et al., J. Bacteriol. 174:7149-7158 (1992)), which can reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to ethanol and butanol, respectively. In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxide the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al., J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972); Koo et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)). An additional candidate enzyme for converting methylmalonyl-CoA directly to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate is encoded by a malonyl-CoA reductase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus (Hugler, et al., J. Bacteriol. 184(9):2404-2410 (2002).

Gene GenBank ID Organism mcr YP_001636209.1 Chloroflexus aurantiacus adhE NP_415757.1 Escherichia coli bdh I NP_349892.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum bdh II NP_349891.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum adhE AAV66076.1 Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Referring to FIG. 2, step 5 involves 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-). The final step involves the dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methacrylic acid. No direct evidence for this specific enzymatic transformation has been identified. However, most dehydratases catalyze the α,β-elimination of water, which involves activation of the α-hydrogen by an electron-withdrawing carbonyl, carboxylate, or CoA-thiol ester group and removal of the hydroxyl group from the β-position (Buckel and Barker, J Bacteriol. 117:1248-1260 (1974); Martins et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:15645-15649 (2004)). This is the exact type of transformation proposed for the final step in the methacrylate pathway. In addition, the proposed transformation is highly similar to the 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase of Eubacterium barkeri (FIG. 3A). This enzyme has been studied in the context of nicotinate catabolism and is encoded by hmd (Alhapel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12341-12346 (2006)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology are found in Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, and Natranaerobius thermophilius. These enzymes are also homologous to the α- and β-subunits of [4Fe-4S]-containing bacterial serine dehydratases, for example, E. coli enzymes encoded by tdcG, sdhB, and sdaA).

Gene GenBank ID Organism hmd ABC88407.1 Eubacterium barkeri BACCAP_02294 ZP_02036683.1 Bacteroides capillosus ATCC 29799 ANACOL_02527 ZP_02443222.1 Anaerotruncus colihominis DSM 17241 NtherDRAFT_2368Z P_02852366.1 Natranaerobius thermophilus JW/NM-WN-LF

Fumarate hydratase enzymes, which naturally catalyze the dehydration of malate to fumarate, represent an additional set of candidates (FIG. 3B). Although the ability of fumarate hydratase to react on branched substrates has not been described, a wealth of structural information is available for this enzyme and other researchers have successfully engineered the enzyme to alter activity, inhibition and localization (Weaver, Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 61:1395-1401 (2005)). Exemplary enzyme candidates include those encoded by fumC from Escherichia coli (Estevez et al., Protein Sci. 11:1552-1557 (2002); Hong and Lee, Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 9:252-255 (2004); Rose and Weaver, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:3393-3397 (2004)), Campylobacter jejuni (Smith et al., Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 31:961-975 (1999)) and Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:49-55 (1998)), and fumH from Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi et al., J. Biochem. 89:1923-1931 (1981)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology include fum1 from Arabidopsis thaliana and fumC from Corynebacterium glutamicum.

Gene name GenBankID Organism fumC P05042.1 Escherichia coli K12 fumC O69294.1 Campylobacter jejuni fumC P84127 Thermus thermophilus fumH P14408.1 Rattus norvegicus fum1 P93033.2 Arabidopsis thaliana fumC Q8NRN8.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MMA from succinyl-CoA.

Example II Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Succinyl-CoA to MAA via 3-Hydroxyisobutyrate

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from succinyl-CoA via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 2. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the scpA (NP_417392.1), argK (AAC75955.1), and AF454511 (AAL57846.1) genes encoding the methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, its stabilizer protein, and methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, mcr (NP_378167), dhat (Q59477.1), and hmd (ABC88407.1) genes encoding methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the succinyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the succinyl-CoA intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from succinyl-CoA via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate.

Example III Pathway for Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to MAA via 3-Amino-2-Methylpropanoate

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthesis pathway from succinyl-CoA to MAA via 3-amino-methylpropanoate.

Another exemplary pathway for MAA biosynthesis proceeds from succinyl-CoA through 3-amino-2-methylpropanoate (see FIG. 4). This pathway is high-yielding under anaerobic conditions with a maximum theoretical yield of 1.33 mol MAA/mol glucose. The pathway is also energetically efficient, capable of generating 1.55 mol ATP/mol glucose at maximum product yield, under the assumption that PEP carboxykinase can operate reversibly.

The first three steps of this pathway, involving the conversion of succinyl-CoA to methylmalonate semialdehyde, are identical to the succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway described in Example I (see FIG. 2). The pathway diverges at step 4, where methylmalonate semialdehyde is converted to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate by a transaminase. The final pathway step entails deamination of 3-amino-2-methylpropionate to methacrylic acid.

Enzyme and gene candidates for catalyzing the first three pathway steps are described in Example I. Gene candidates for steps 4 and 5 are discussed below.

Referring to FIG. 4, step 4 involves 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase (EC 2.6.1.22). 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme, characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and encoded by Abat, has been shown to catalyze this transformation in the direction of interest in the pathway (Kakimoto et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 156:374-380 (1968); Tamaki et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:376-389 (2000)). Enzyme candidates in other organisms with high sequence homology to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase include Gta-1 in C. elegans and gabT in Bacillus subtilis. Additionally, one of the native GABA aminotransferases in E. coli, encoded by gene gabT, has been shown to have broad substrate specificity and may utilize 3-amino-2-methylpropionate as a substrate (Liu et al., Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 (2004); Schulz et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1-6 (1990)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism Abat P50554.3 Rattus norvegicus Abat P80147.2 Sus scrofa Gta-1 Q21217.1 Caenorhabditis elegans gabT P94427.1 Bacillus subtilus gabT P22256.1 Escherichia coli K12

Referring to FIG. 4, step 5 involves 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase (EC 4.3.1.-). In the final step of this pathway, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate is deaminated to methacrylic acid. An enzyme catalyzing this exact transformation has not been demonstrated experimentally; however the native E. coli enzyme, aspartate ammonia lyase (EC 4.3.1.1), may be able to catalyze this reaction (see FIG. 5A). Encoded by aspA in E. coli, aspartate ammonia lyase deaminates asparatate to form fumarate but can also react with alternate substrates aspartatephenylmethylester, asparagine, benzyl-aspartate and malate (Ma et al., Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 672:60-65 (1992)). In a separate study, directed evolution was been employed on this enzyme to alter substrate specificity (Asano et al., Biomol. Eng. 22:95-101 (2005)). Genes encoding aspartase in other organisms include ansB in Bacillus subtilis(Sjostrom et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1324:182-190 (1997)) and aspA in Pseudomonas fluorescens (Takagi et al., J. Biochem. 96:545-552 (1984); Takagi et al., J. Biochem. 100:697-705 (1986)) and Serratia marcescens (Takagi et al., J. Bacteriol. 161:1-6 (1985)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism aspA P0AC38.1 Escherichia coli K12 ansB P26899.1 Bacillus subtilus aspA P07346.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens aspA P33109.1 Serratia marcescens

This example describes an MAA biosynthetic pathway from succinyl-CoA.

Example IV Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Succinyl-CoA to MAA via 3-Amino-2-methylpropanoate

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from succinyl-CoA via 3-amino-2-methylpropanoate.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 4. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the scpA (NP_417392.1), argK (AAC75955.1), and AF454511 (AAL57846.1) genes encoding the methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, its stabilizer protein, and methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the bphG (BAA03892.1), gabT (P22256.1), and aspA (POAC38.1) genes encoding methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the succinyl-CoA to 3-amino-2-methylpropanoate pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the succinyl-CoA intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from succinyl-CoA via 3-amino-2-methylpropanoate.

Example V Pathway for Conversion of 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid or MAA

This example describes an exemplary 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or MAA synthesis pathway from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

An additional exemplary pathway entails the conversion of 4HB-CoA to MAA (see FIG. 6). In the first step, 4HB-CoA is converted to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA (3-Hib-CoA) by a methylmutase. 3-Hib-CoA can then be converted to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate by a CoA hydrolase, synthase or transferase. 3-hydroxyisobutyrate can be secreted and recovered as a product or as a final step in the production of methacrylic acid. 3-Hydroxybutyrate can be dehydrated to form methacrylic acid. Alternatively, 3-Hib-CoA can be dehydrated to methacrylyl-CoA which is then converted to MAA by a hydrolase, synthase, or transferase. The enzymes required for converting the tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, or succinyl-CoA, into 4HB-CoA, are well-documented (Burk et al., U.S. application Ser. No. 12/049,256, filed Mar. 14, 2008; Lutke-Eversloh and Steinbuchel. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 181:63-71 (1999); Sohling and Gottschalk, Eur. J. Biochem. 212:121-127 (1993); Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); Valentin et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 227:43-60 (1995); Wolff and Kenealy, Protein Expr. Purif. 6:206-212. (1995)).

Under anaerobic conditions, the maximum theoretical product yield is 1.33 moles MAA per mol glucose if a CoA-transferase or synthetase is employed to convert 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyrate in step 2 of the pathway (Table 1). If a hydrolase is employed, the maximum theoretical yield drops to 1.13 mol/mol unless PEP carboxykinase is assumed to reversibly operate in the ATP-generating direction towards oxaloacetate. Likewise, the energetic yields are dependent on the type of enzyme utilized in step 2 of the pathway. The highest ATP yields are obtained when a CoA-synthetase is utilized in step 2 and PEP carboxykinase is assumed to be reversible. The product and energetic yields under aerobic conditions are also dependent on the type of enzyme utilized in the conversion of 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyrate. It is understood that the maximum molar yields of ATP and product will be unchanged regardless of whether methacrylate or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate is produced. Additionally, it is understood that the maximum molar yields of ATP and MAA will be unchanged if the pathway proceeds through methacryl-CoA as depicted in FIG. 6.

TABLE 1 The maximum theoretical yield of MAA using the biosynthetic pathway through 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (4HB-CoA). All yields are expressed as mole/mole glucose. MAA biosynthetic pathway via 4HB-CoA Anaerobic Aerobic MAA Yield (hydrolase for step 2 and/or 5) 1.13 1.28 MAA Yield (PEPCK reversible) 1.33 1.33 Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 0.39 0.43 (PEPCK reversible, hydrolase for step 2 and/or 5) Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 1.39 1.43 (PEPCK reversible, transferase for step 2 and/or 5) Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 1.72 1.76 (PEPCK reversible, synthetase for step 2 and/or 5)

Referring to FIG. 6, step 1 involves 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase (EC 5.4.99.-). The conversion of 4HB-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA has yet to be demonstrated experimentally. However, two methylmutases, that is, isobutyryl-CoA mutase (ICM) and methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM), which catalyze similar reactions, are good candidates given the structural similarity of their corresponding substrates (FIG. 7). Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase is a cobalamin-dependent enzyme that converts succinyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA (FIG. 7A). This enzyme and suitable gene candidates were discussed in the succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway (see Example I).

Alternatively, ICM could catalyze the proposed transformation. ICM is a cobalamin-dependent methylmutase in the MCM family that reversibly rearranges the carbon backbone of butyryl-CoA into isobutyryl-CoA (FIG. 7B) (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999)). A recent study of a novel ICM in Methylibium petroleiphilum, along with previous work, provides evidence that changing a single amino acid near the active site alters the substrate specificity of the enzyme (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999); Rohwerder et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:4128-4135. (2006)). This implies that if a native enzyme is unable to catalyze the conversion of 4HB-CoA to 3HIB-CoA, the enzyme could undergo rational engineering. Exemplary ICM genes encoding homodimeric enzymes include icmA in Streptomyces coelicolor A3 (Alhapel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12341-12346 (2006)) and Mpe_B0541 in Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1 (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999); Rohwerder et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:4128-4135 (2006)). Genes encoding heterodimeric enzymes include icm and icmB in Streptomyces cinnamonensis (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999); Vrijbloed et al., J. Bacteriol. 181:5600-5605. (1999); Zerbe-Burkhardt et al., J. Biol. Chem. 273:6508-6517 (1998)). Genes icmA and icmB in Streptomyces avermitilis MA-4680 show high sequence similarity to known ICMs.

Gene name GenBankID Organism icmA CAB40912.1 Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) Mpe_B0541 YP_001023546.1 Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1 icm AAC08713.1 Streptomyces cinnamonensis icmB CAB59633.1 Streptomyces cinnamonensis icmA NP_824008.1 Streptomyces avermitilis MA-4680 icmB NP_824637.1 Streptomyces avermitilis MA-4680

Referring to FIG. 6, step 2 involves 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.4), synthetase (EC 6.2.1.-) or 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.-). Step 5 involves methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase, synthetase, or transferase. These transformations can be performed by different classes of enzymes including CoA hydrolases (EC 3.1.2.-), CoA transferases (EC 2.8.3.-), and CoA synthetases (EC 6.1.2.-). As discussed earlier, pathway energetics are most favorable if a CoA transferase or a CoA synthetase is employed to accomplish this transformation (Table 1).

In the CoA-transferase family, E. coli enzyme acyl-CoA:acetate-CoA transferase, also known as acetate-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.8), has been shown to transfer the CoA moity to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies and Schink, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel et al. supra, 1968). This enzyme is encoded by atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) in E. coli sp. K12 (Korolev et al., Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002); Vanderwinkel et al., supra, 1968) and actA and cg0592 in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5186-5190 (2002)) and represents an ideal candidate to catalyze the desired 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA transferase or methacrylyl-CoA transferase biotransformations shown in FIG. 6, steps 2 and 5. Candidate genes by sequence homology include atoD and atoA in Escherichia coli UT189. Similar enzymes also exist in Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum.

Gene name GenBankID Organism atoA P76459.1 Escherichia coli K12 atoD P76458.1 Escherichia coli K12 actA YP_226809.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 cg0592 YP_224801.1 Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 atoA ABE07971.1 Escherichia coli UT189 atoD ABE07970.1 Escherichia coli UT189 ctfA NP_149326.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfB NP_149327.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum ctfA AAP42564.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum ctfB AAP42565.1 Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum

Additional exemplary transferase transformations are catalyzed by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA acetyltransferase activity, respectively (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178(3): 871-880 (1996); Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105(6):2128-2133 (2008)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism cat1 P38946.1 Clostridium kluyveri cat2 P38942.2 Clostridium kluyveri cat3 EDK35586.1 Clostridium kluyveri

The glutaconate-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with diacid glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack and Buckel, FEBS Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mack et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism gctA CAA57199.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans gctB CAA57200.1 Acidaminococcus fermentans

Additional enzyme candidates include succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid CoA transferases which utilize succinate as the CoA acceptor. Exemplary succinyl-CoA:3:ketoacid-CoA transferases are present in Helicobacter pylori (Corthesy-Theulaz et al., J. Biol. Chem. 272:25659-25667 (1997)) and Bacillus subtilis (Stols et al., Protein Expr. Purif. 53:396-403 (2007)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism HPAG1_0676 YP_627417 Helicobacter pylori HPAG1_0677 YP_627418 Helicobacter pylori ScoA NP_391778 Bacillus subtilis ScoB NP_391777 Bacillus subtilis

A candidate ATP synthase is ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD, EC 6.2.1.13), an enzyme that couples the conversion of acyl-CoA esters to their corresponding acids with the concurrent synthesis of ATP. Although this enzyme has not been shown to react with 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA or methacrylyl-CoA as a substrate, several enzymes with broad substrate specificities have been described in the literature. ACD I from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1211, was shown to operate on a variety of linear and branched-chain substrates including isobutyrate, isopentanoate, and fumarate (Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) accepts priopionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isovalerate and isobutyrate) as substrates, and was shown to operate in the forward and reverse directions (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen and Schonheit, supra, 2004). However, directed evolution or engineering can be used to modify this enzyme to operate at the physiological temperature of the host organism. The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Brasen and Schonheit, supra, 2004; Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism AF1211 NP_070039.1 Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304 scs YP_135572.1 Haloarcula marismortui ATCC 43049 PAE3250 NP_560604.1 Pyrobaculum aerophilum str. IM2

In the CoA hydrolase family, the enzyme 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase is specific for 3-HIBCoA and has been described to efficiently catalyze the desired transformation during valine degradation (Shimomura et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:14248-14253 (1994)). Genes encoding this enzyme include hibch of Rattus norvegicus (Shimomura et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:14248-14253 (1994); Shimomura et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:229-240 (2000)) and Homo sapiens (Shimomura et al., supra, 2000). Candidate genes by sequence homology include hibch of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and BC_2292 of Bacillus cereus.

Gene name GenBankID Organism hibch Q5XIE6.2 Rattus norvegicus hibch Q6NVY1.2 Homo sapiens hibch P28817.2 Saccharomyces cerevisiae BC_2292 Q81DR3 Bacillus cereus

Referring to FIG. 6, step 3 involves 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-). The entails dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to MAA by 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. Gene candidates for this enzyme are described in the succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway (see Example I). Also referring to FIG. 6, step 4 involves 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-). Dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to methacrylyl-CoA can be accomplished by a reversible 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase such as crotonase (also called 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, EC 4.2.1.55) or enoyl-CoA hydratase (also called 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase, EC 4.2.1.17). These enzymes are generally reversible (Moskowitz and Merrick, Biochemistry 8:2748-2755 (1969); Dune et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 17:251-262 (1995)). Exemplary genes encoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Boynton, et al., J. Bacteriol. 178(11):3015-3024 (1996)), C. kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, FEBS Lett. 21(3):351-354 (1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318(5857) 1782-1786 (2007)) though the sequence of the latter gene is not known. Enoyl-CoA hydratases, which are involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation and/or the metabolism of various amino acids, can also catalyze the hydration of crotonyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Agnihotri and Liu, Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11(1):9-20 (2003); Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117(1):99-108 (1978); Conrad et al., J. Bacteriol. 118(1):103-111 (1974)). The enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (Olivera et al., supra, 1998). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park and Yup, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686. (2004)), and paaG (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park and Yup, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686 (2004)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism crt NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 YP_001393856 Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555 paaA NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens paaB NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaA ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas putida phaB ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas putida maoC NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid or methacrylic acid from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Example VI Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 6. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the sucD (YP_001396394), 4hbd (YP_001396393), buk1 (Q45829), and ptb (NP_349676) genes encoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, and phosphotransbutyrylase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. This construct allows the production of 4HB-CoA from succinyl-CoA as described in Burk et al. (U.S. application Ser. No. 12/049,256, filed Mar. 14, 2008). In addition, the icmA (CAB40912.1), hibch (Q5XIE6.2), and hmd (ABC88407.1) genes encoding 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase, 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the succinyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA intermediates of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Example VII Pathway for Conversion of Alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA via Threo-3-methylaspartate

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthesis pathway from alpha-ketoglutarate to threo-3-methylaspartate.

Another exemplary pathway for MAA biosynthesis proceeds through alpha-ketoglutarate, a metabolite in E. coli produced in the TCA cycle (see FIG. 8). This pathway is high-yielding under aerobic conditions with a maximum theoretical yield of 1.2 mol MAA/mol glucose (Table 2). The yields under anaerobic conditions are lower, as the pathway is redox imbalanced and MAA synthesis requires the formation of fermentation byproducts such as formate and ethanol.

TABLE 2 The maximum theoretical yield of MAA using the alpha-ketoglutarate biosynthetic pathway. All yields are expressed as mole/mole glucose. MAA biosynthetic pathway via alpha- ketoglutarate Anaerobic Aerobic MAA Yield 0.69 1.2 MAA Yield (PEPCK reversible) 0.82 1.2 ATP Yield @ max MAA yield (PEPCK 0 0.95 reversible)

The first step of the pathway, catalyzed by the enzyme aspartate aminotransferase, transfers an amino group from aspartate to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate and oxaloacetate. The subsequent two steps include rearrangement of the carbon backbone and subsequent deamination to form mesaconate. Enzymes catalyzing these conversions are found in the energy-yielding fermentation of glutamate in soil Clostridia and other organisms capable of fermenting amino acids (Buckel and Barker, J. Bacteriol. 117:1248-1260 (1974)). The directionality of the pathway in these organisms is in agreement with the direction required for MAA synthesis in the biopathway. The final pathway step entails decarboxylation of mesaconate to yield methacrylic acid.

Referring to FIG. 8, step 1 involves aspartate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.1). The first step of the pathway transfers an amino group from aspartate to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate and oxaloacetate. The genes aspC from Escherichia coli (Yagi et al., FEBS Lett. 100:81-84 (1979); Yagi et al., Methods Enzymol. 113:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi et al., J. Biochem. 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASPS from Arabidopsis thaliana (de la Torre et al., Plant J. 46:414-425 (2006); Kwok and Hanson, J. Exp. Bot. 55:595-604 (2004); Wilkie and Warren, Protein Expr. Purif. 12:381-389 (1998)), encode the enzyme that catalyzes this conversion, aspartate aminotransferase.

Gene name GenBank Accession # Organism aspC NP_415448.1 Escherichia coli AAT2 P23542.3 Saccharomyces cerevisiae ASP5 P46248.2 Arabidopsis thaliana

Referring to FIG. 8, step 2 involves glutamate mutase (EC 5.4.99.1). In step 2, the linear carbon chain of glutamate is rearranged to the branched structure of threo-3-methylaspartate. This transformation is catalyzed by glutamate mutase, a cobalamin-dependent enzyme composed of two subunits. Two glutamate mutases, from Clostridium cochlearium and Clostridium tetanomorphum, have been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Holloway and Marsh, J. Biol. Chem. 269:20425-20430 (1994); Reitzer et al., Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 54:1039-1042 (1998)). The genes encoding this two-subunit protein are glmE and glmS from Clostridium cochlearium, mamA and glmE from Clostridium tetanomorphum, and mutE and mutS from Clostridium tetani (Switzer, Glutamate mutase, pp. 289-305 Wiley, New York (1982)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism glmE P80077.2 Clostridium cochlearium glmS P80078.2 Clostridium cochlearium mamA Q05488.1 Clostridium tetanomorphum glmE Q05509.1 Clostridium tetanomorphum mutE NP_783086.1 Clostridium tetani E88 mutS NP_783088.1 Clostridium tetani E88

Referring to FIG. 8, step 3 involves 3-methylaspartase (EC 4.3.1.2). 3-methylaspartase, also referred to as beta-methylaspartase or 3-methylaspartate ammonia-lyase, catalyzes the deamination of threo-3-methylasparatate to mesaconate. The 3-methylaspartase from Clostridium tetanomorphum has been cloned, functionally expressed in E. coli, and crystallized (Asuncion et al., Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 57:731-733 (2001); Asuncion et al., J. Biol. Chem. 277:8306-8311 (2002); Botting et al., Biochemistry 27:2953-2955 (1988); Goda et al., Biochemistry 31:10747-10756 (1992)). In Citrobacter amalonaticus, this enzyme is encoded by BAA28709 (Kato and Asano, Arch. Microbiol. 168:457-463 (1997)). 3-methylaspartase has also been crystallized from E. coli YG1002 (Asano and Kato, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 118:255-258 (1994)), although the protein sequence is not listed in public databases such as GenBank. Sequence homology can be used to identify additional candidate genes, including CTC_02563 in C. tetani and ECs0761 in Escherichia coli O157:H7.

Gene name GenBankID Organism MAL AAB24070.1 Clostridium tetanomorphum BAA28709 BAA28709.1 Citrobacter amalonaticus CTC_02563 NP_783085.1 Clostridium tetani ECs0761 BAB34184.1 Escherichia coli O157:H7 str. Sakai

Referring to FIG. 8, step 4 involves mesaconate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.-). The final step of the pathway entails the decarboxylation of mesaconate to methacrylic acid. An enzyme catalyzing this exact reaction has not been demonstrated experimentally. However, several enzymes catalyzing highly similar reactions exist (FIG. 9). One enzyme with closely related function is aconitate decarboxylase (FIG. 9A). This enzyme catalyzes the final step in itaconate biosynthesis in a strain of Candida and the filamentous fungi Aspergillus terreus (Bonnarme et al., J. Bacteriol. 177:3573-3578 (1995); Willke and Vorlop, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 56:289-295 (2001)). Although itaconate is a compound of biotechnological interest, no efforts have been made thus far to identify or clone the aconitate decarboxylase gene.

A second enzyme with similar function is 4-oxalocronate decarboxylase (FIG. 9B). This enzyme is common in a variety of organisms and the genes encoding the enzyme from Pseudomonas sp. (strain 600) have been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Shingler et al., J. Bacteriol. 174:711-724 (1992)). The methyl group in mesaconate may cause steric hindrance, but this problem could likely be overcome with directed evolution or protein engineering. 4-oxalocronate decarboxylase is composed of two subunits. Genes encoding this enzyme include dmpH and dmpE in Pseudomonas sp. (strain 600) (Shingler et al., J. Bacteriol. 174:711-724 (1992)), xylII and xylIII from Pseudomonas putida (Kato and Asano, Arch. Microbiol. 168:457-463 (1997); Stanley et al., Biochemistry 39:718-726 (2000)), and Reut_B5691 and Reut_B5692 from Ralstonia eutropha JMP 134 (Hughes et al., J. Bacteriol. 158:79-83 (1984)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism dmpH CAA43228.1 Pseudomonas sp. CF600 dmpE CAA43225.1 Pseudomonas sp. CF600 xylII YP_709328.1 Pseudomonas putida xylIII YP_709353.1 Pseudomonas putida Reut_B5691 YP_299880.1 Ralstonia eutropha JMP 134 Reut_B5692 YP_299881.1 Ralstonia eutropha JMP 134

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MMA from alpha-ketoglutarate.

Example VIII Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA via Threo-3-Methylaspartate

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from alpha-ketoglutarate via threo-3-methylaspartate.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 8. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the aspC (NP_415448.1), glmE (P80077.2), and glmS (P80078.2) genes encoding the aspartate aminotransferase and glutamate mutase activities are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the MAL (AAB24070.1), dmpH (CAA43228.1), and dmpE (CAA43225.1) genes encoding 3-methylaspartase and mesaconate decarboxylase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the alpha-ketoglutarate to threo-3-methylaspartate pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the alpha-ketoglutarate intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from alpha-ketoglutarate via threo-3-methylaspartate.

Example IX Pathway for Conversion of Alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA via 2-Hydroxyglutarate

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthesis pathway from alph-ketoglutarate to MAA via 2-hydroxyglutarate.

Another exemplary pathway for MAA biosynthesis has a scheme similar to the pathway described in Example VII, but it passes through the hydroxylated intermediates 2-hydroxyglutarate and 3-methylmalate (see FIG. 10), rather than amine-substituted intermediates (see FIG. 8). Like the pathway described in Example VII, this pathway is high-yielding under aerobic conditions with a maximum theoretical yield of 1.2 mol MAA/mol glucose (Table 3). Under anaerobic conditions, the pathway is not redox-balanced and MAA synthesis requires formation of fermentation byproducts such as ethanol, formate and succinate.

TABLE 3 The maximum theoretical yield of MAA using the alpha-ketoglutarate biosynthetic pathway via 2-hydroxyglutarate. All yields are expressed as mole/mole glucose. MAA biosynthetic pathway via alpha- ketoglutarate (alt) Anaerobic Aerobic MAA Yield 0.74 1.20 MAA Yield (PEPCK reversible) 0.87 1.20 ATP Yield @ max MAA yield (PEPCK 0 1.55 reversible)

Referring to FIG. 10, step 1 involves alpha-ketoglutarate reductase (EC 1.1.99.2). The first step of this pathway entails the reduction of alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate by native enzyme alpha-ketoglutarate reductase. This enzyme is encoded by serA, a multifunctional enzyme which also catalyzes the reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate in central metabolism (Zhao and Winkler, J. Bacteriol. 178:232-239 (1996)). Genes L2HGDH in Homo sapiens (Jansen and Wanders, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1225:53-56 (1993)), FN0487 in L2hgdh in Fusobacterium nucleatum (Hayashi et al., J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent. 28:12-21 (1986)), and L2hgdh_predicted in Rattus norvegicus (Jansen and Wanders, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1225:53-56 (1993)) encode this enzyme. Gene candidates with high sequence homology include L2hgdh in Mus musculus and L2HGDH in Bos taurus. At high concentrations, 2-hydroxyglutarate has been shown to feed back on alpha-ketoglutarate reductase activity by competitive inhibition (Zhao and Winkler, J. Bacteriol. 178:232-239. (1996)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism serA CAA01762.1 Escherichia coli L2HGDH Q9H9P8.2 Homo sapiens L2hgdh NP_663418.1 Mus musculus L2hgdh_predicted NP_001101498.1 Rattus norvegicus L2HGDH NP_001094560.1 Bos taurus FN0487 Q8RG31 Fusobacterium nucleatum subsp. Nucleatum

Referring to FIG. 10, step 2 involves 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase (EC 5.4.99.-). In the second step of the pathway, the carbon backbone undergoes rearrangement by a glutamate mutase enzyme. The most common reaction catalyzed by such an enzyme is the conversion of glutamate to threo-3-methylasparate, shown in step 2 of FIG. 8. The adenosylcobalamin-dependent glutamate mutase from Clostridium cochlearium has also been shown to react with 2-hydroxyglutarate as an alternate substrate (Roymoulik et al., Biochemistry 39:10340-10346 (2000)), although the rate of this reaction is two orders of magnitude lower with 2-hydroxyglutarate compared to the rate with native substrate glutamate. Directed evolution of the enzyme can be used to increase glutamate mutase affinity for 2-hydroxyglutarate. GenBank accession numbers of protein sequences encoding glutamate mutases are found in Example VII, step 2 of the pathway.

Referring to FIG. 10, step 3 involves 3-methylmalate dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.-). In the third step, 3-methylmalate is dehydrated to form mesaconate. Although an enzyme catalyzing this exact transformation has not been described in the literature, several enzymes are able to catalyze a similar reaction (FIGS. 11A-C). One such enzyme is 2-methylmalate dehydratase, also called citramalate hydrolyase, which converts 2-methylmalate to mesaconate (FIG. 11A). 2-Methylmalate and 3-methylmalate are closely related, with the only difference in structure being the location of the hydroxyl group. 2-Methylmalate dehydratase activity was detected in Clostridium tetanomorphum, Morganella morganii, Citrobacter amalonaticus in the context of the glutamate degradation VI pathway (Kato and Asano, Arch. Microbiol. 168:457-463 (1997)); however the genes encoding this enzyme have not been sequenced to date.

A second candidate enzyme is fumarate hydratase, which catalyzes the dehydration of malate to fumarate (FIG. 11B). As described in Example I (step 5), a wealth of structural information is available for this enzyme and other studies have successfully engineered the enzyme to alter activity, inhibition and localization (Weaver, Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 61:1395-1401 (2005)). Gene candidates are discussed in Example I, step 5 of the pathway.

Referring to FIG. 10, step 4 involves mesaconate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.-). The final pathway step involves the decarboxylation of mesaconate to methacrylic acid. This reaction is identical to the final step of the pathway described in Example VII.

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MMA from alpha-ketoglutarate.

Example X Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Alpha-ketoglutarate to MAA via 2-Hydroxyglutarate

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from alpha-ketoglutarate via 2-hydroxyglutarate.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 10. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the serA (CAA01762.1), glmE (P80077.2), and glmS (P80078.2) genes encoding the alpha-ketoglutarate reductase and 2-hydroxyglutamate mutase activities are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the fumC (P05042.1), dmpH (CAA43228.1), and dmpE (CAA43225.1) genes encoding 3-methylmalate dehydratase and mesaconate decarboxylase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the alpha-ketoglutarate to 2-hydroxyglutarate pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the alpha-ketoglutarate intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from alpha-ketoglutarate via 2-hydroxyglutarate.

Example XI Pathway for Conversion of Acetyl-CoA to 2-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid or MAA

This example describes an exemplary 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid or MAA synthesis pathway from acetyl-CoA.

MAA biosynthesis can proceed from acetyl-CoA in a minimum of five enzymatic steps (see FIG. 12). In this pathway, two molecules of acetyl-CoA are combined to form acetoacetyl-coA, which is then reduced to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by way of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase and crotonase (Martins et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 101(44) 15645-15649 (2004); Jones and Woods, Microbiol. Rev. 50:484-524 (1986); Berg et al., Science 318(5857) 1782-1786 (2007)). A methylmutase then rearranges the carbon backbone of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, which is then dehydrated to form methacrylyl-CoA. Alternatively, 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA can be converted to 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, secreted, and recovered as product. The final step converting methacrylyl-CoA to MAA can be performed by a single enzyme (shown in FIG. 12) or a series of enzymes.

The pathway shown in FIG. 12 has a maximum theoretical product yield of 1.25 mol/mol glucose under aerobic conditions which also requires the utilization of 0.4 moles of oxygen (Table 4). In the absence of oxygen uptake, the maximum theoretical yield drops to 1.01 mol/mol glucose and the fermentation byproducts such as ethanol and formate must be formed to maintain redox balance. The assumption that PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) can operate in the ATP generating direction increases the MAA yield under anaerobic conditions to 1.09 mol/mol, but does not prevent the formation of byproducts. The energetics of MAA formation are favorable if a CoA transferase or synthetase is utilized in step 5 of the pathway. Equivalent maximum yields of product and ATP are obtain if 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid is produced as opposed to methacrylic acid via the pathways described herein.

TABLE 4 MAA and ATP yields for Acetyl-CoA pathway. MAA biosynthetic pathway via Acetyl-CoA Anaerobic Aerobic MAA Yield 1.01 1.25 MAA Yield (PEPCK reversible) 1.09 1.25 Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 0 0.03 (PEPCK reversible, hydrolase for step 5) Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 1.09 1.28 (PEPCK reversible, transferase or synthetase for step 5)

Referring to FIG. 12, step 1 involves acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (EC 2.3.1.9). The formation of acetoacetyl-CoA from two acetyl-CoA units is catalyzed by acetyl-CoA thiolase. This enzyme is native to E. coli, encoded by gene atoB, and typically operates in the acetoacetate-degrading direction during fatty acid oxidation (Duncombe and Frerman, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:159-170 (1976); Frerman and Duncombe, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 580:289-297 (1979)). The gene thlA from Clostridium acetobutylicum was engineered into an isopropanol-producing strain of E. coli and was shown to function in the direction of acetoacetate synthesis (Hanai et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:7814-7818 (2007); Stim-Herndon et al., Gene 154:81-85 (1995)). An additional gene candidate is thl from Clostridium pasteurianum (Meng and Li. Cloning, Biotechnol. Lett. 28:1227-1232 (2006)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism atoB P76461.1 Escherichia coli thlA P45359.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum thl ABA18857.1 Clostridium pasteurianum

Referring to FIG. 12, step 2 involves acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (EC#: 1.1.1.35). The second step entails the reduction of acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by acetoacetyl-CoA reductase. This enzyme participates in the acetyl-CoA fermentation pathway to butyrate in several species of Clostridia and has been studied in detail (Jones and Woods, Microbiol. Rev. 50:484-524 (1986)). The enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by hbd, has been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J. Bacteriol. 171:6800-6807 (1989)). Additionally, subunits of two fatty acid oxidation complexes in E. coli, encoded by fadB and fadJ, function as 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (Binstock and Schulz, Methods Enzymol. 71 Pt C:403-411 (1981)). Additional gene candidates include Hbd1 (C-terminal domain) and Hbd2 (N-terminal domain) in Clostridium kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 3334:12-23 (1974)) and HSD17B10 in Bos taurus (Wakil et al., J. Biol. Chem. 207:631-638 (1954)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism fadB P21177.2 Escherichia coli fadJ P77399.1 Escherichia coli Hbd2 EDK34807.1 Clostridium kluyveri Hbd1 EDK32512.1 Clostridium kluyveri hbd P52041.2 Clostridium acetobutylicum HSD17B10 O02691.3 Bos taurus

Referring to FIG. 12, step 3 involves 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase (EC 5.4.99.-). In the next step, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, is rearranged to form 2-HIBCoA by 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase. This enzyme is a novel ICM-like methylmutase recently discovered and characterized in Methylibium petroleiphilum (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999); Rohwerder et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:4128-4135 (2006)). This enzyme, encoded by Mpe_B0541 in Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1, has high sequence homology to the large subunit of methylmalonyl-CoA mutase in other organisms including Rsph17029_3657 in Rhodobacter sphaeroides and Xaut_5021 in Xanthobacter autotrophicus. As discussed in Example V (step 1), changes to a single amino acid near the active site alters the substrate specificity of the enzyme (Ratnatilleke et al., supra, 1999; Rohwerder et al., supra, 2006), so alternate gene candidates for this enzyme can be engineered at this site to achieve the appropriate reactivity.

Gene name GenBankID Organism Mpe_B0541 YP_001023546.1 Methylibium petroleiphilum PM1 Rsph17029_3657 YP_001045519.1 Rhodobacter sphaeroides ATCC 17029 Xaut_5021 YP_001409455.1 Xanthobacter autotrophicus Py2

Referring to FIG. 12, step 4 involves 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase. The dehydration of 2-hydroxyacyl-CoA can be catalyzed by a special class of oxygen-sensitive enzymes that operate via a radical-mechanism (Buckel and Golding, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 60:27-49 (2006); Buckel et al., Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 8:462-467 (2004); Buckel et al., Biol. Chem. 386:951-959 (2005); Kim et al., FEBS J. 272:550-561 (2005); Kim et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28:455-468 (2004); Zhang et al., Microbiology 145 (Pt 9):2323-2334 (1999)). One example of such an enzyme is the lactyl-CoA dehydratase from Clostridium propionicum, which catalyzes the dehydration of lactoyl-CoA to form acryl-CoA (Kuchta and Abeles, J. Biol. Chem. 260:13181-13189 (1985); Hofmeister and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 206:547-552 (1992)). An additional example is 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA dehydratase encoded by hgdABC from Acidaminococcus fermentans (Muëller and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 230:698-704 (1995); Schweiger et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 169:441-448 (1987)). Yet another example is the 2-hydroxyisocaproyl-CoA dehydratase from Clostridium difficile catalyzed by hadBC and activated by hadI (Darley et al., FEBS J. 272:550-61 (2005)). The corresponding sequences for A. fermentans and C. difficile can be found using the following GenBankIDs, while the sequences for C. propionicium are not yet listed in publicly available databases.

Gene name GenBankID Organism hgdA P11569 Acidaminococcus fermentans hgdB P11570 Acidaminococcus fermentans hgdC P11568 Acidaminococcus fermentans hadB YP_001086863 Clostridium difficile hadC YP_001086864 Clostridium difficile hadI YP_001086862 Clostridium difficile

Referring to FIG. 12, steps 5 or 6 involve a transferase (EC 2.8.3.-), hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.-), or synthetase (EC 6.2.1.-) with activity on a methacrylic acid or 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, respectively. Direct conversion of methacrylyl-CoA to MAA or 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 2-hydrioxyisobutyrate can be accomplished by a CoA transferase, synthetase or hydrolase. As discussed in Example V, pathway energetics are most favorable if a CoA transferase or a CoA synthetase is employed to accomplish this transformation. In the transferase family, the enzyme acyl-CoA:acetate-CoA transferase, also known as acetate-CoA transferase, is a suitable candidate to catalyze the desired 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA or methacryl-CoA transferase activity due to its broad substrate specificity that includes branched acyl-CoA substrates (Matthies and Schink, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992); Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)). ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD) is a promising enzyme in the CoA synthetase family operating on structurally similar branched chain compounds (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004); Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). In the CoA-hydrolase family, the enzyme 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase has been shown to operate on a variety of branched chain acyl-CoA substrates including 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, methylmalonyl-CoA, and 3-hydroxy-2-methylbutanoyl-CoA (Hawes et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000); Hawes et al., J. Biol. Chem. 271:26430-26434 (1996); Shimomura et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:14248-14253 (1994)). Additional exemplary gene candidates for CoA transferases, synthetases, and hydrolases are discussed in Example V (step 2 and 5).

Referring to FIG. 12, an alternative step 5 involves indirect conversion to MAA. As an alternative to direct conversion of MAA-CoA to MAA, an alternate strategy for converting methacrylyl-CoA into MAA entails a multi-step process in which MAA-CoA is converted to MAA via 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. By this process, MAA-CoA is first converted to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA, which can subsequently be converted to MAA as described in Example V.

The first step of this indirect route entails the conversion of MAA-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA (3HIB-CoA) by enoyl-CoA hydratase (EC 4.2.1.17 and 4.2.1.74). In E. coli, the gene products of fadA and fadB encode a multienzyme complex involved in fatty acid oxidation that exhibits enoyl-CoA hydratase activity (Nakahigashi and Inokuchi, Nucleic Acids Research 18:4937 (1990); Yang, Bacteriol. 173:7405-7406 (1991); Yang et al., Biol. Chem. 265:10424-10429 (1990); Yang et al., Biochemistry 30:6788-6795 (1991)). Knocking out a negative regulator encoded by fadR can be utilized to activate the fadB gene product (Sato et al., J. Biosci. Bioengineer. 103:38-44 (2007)). The fadI and fadJ genes encode similar functions and are naturally expressed under anaerobic conditions (Campbell et al., Mol. Microbiol. 47:793-805 (2003)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism fadA YP_026272.1 Escherichia coli fadB NP_418288.1 Escherichia coli fadI NP_416844.1 Escherichia coli fadJ NP_416843.1 Escherichia coli fadR NP_415705.1 Escherichia coli

Additional native gene candidates encoding an enoyl-CoA hydratase include maoC (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park and Yup, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686. (2004)), and paaG (Ismail et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:3047-3054 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park and Yup, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686 (2004)). Non-native candidates include paaA, paaB, and paaN from P. putida (Olivera et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:6419-6424 (1998)) and P. fluorescens (Di Gennaro et al., Arch. Microbiol. 188:117-125 (2007)). The gene product of crt from C. acetobutylicum is another candidate (Atsumi et al., Metab. Eng. epub Sep. 14, 2007; Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996)).

Gene name GenBankID Organism maoC NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli paaA NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas putida paaA ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens paaB NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas putida paaB ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens paaN NP_745413.1 Pseudomonas putida paaN ABF82246.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens crt NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of 2-hydroxyisobutyrate or MAA from acetyl-CoA.

Example XII Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA to MAA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from acetyl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 12. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the atoB (P76461.1), hbd (P52041.2), and Mpe_B0541 (YP_001023546.1) genes encoding the acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the hgdA (P11569), hgdB (P11570), hgdC (P11568), and hibch (Q5XIE6.2) genes encoding 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase and methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase activities are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis via the acetyl-CoA pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from acetyl-CoA.

Example XIII Pathway for Conversion of Acetyl-CoA to MAA Via Crotonoyl-CoA

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthetic pathway from acetyl-CoA via crotonoyl-CoA.

Another route for converting acetyl-CoA to MAA in a minimum of seven enzymatic steps is described (see FIG. 13). The yields of this pathway under aerobic and anaerobic conditions are similar to the pathway described in Example XI.

The first two steps of the pathway are identical to steps 1 and 2 in the pathway described in Example XI. In the third step, 3-HBCoA is dehydrated to form crotonyl-CoA by a crotonase (EC#: 4.2.1.55). The double bond in crotonyl-CoA is reduced by butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (EC#: 1.3.99.2). Both of these enzymes, just like the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, are a part of the acetyl-CoA fermentation pathway to butyrate in Clostridia species (Jones and Woods, Microbiol. Rev. 50:484-524 (1986)). In the subsequent step, butyryl-CoA is converted into isobutyryl-CoA by isobutyryl-CoA mutase (5.4.99.12), an enzyme that can reversibly convert butyryl-CoA into isobutyryl-CoA. This enzyme has been cloned and sequenced from Streptomyces cinnamonensis, and the recombinant enzyme has been characterized in E. coli (Ratnatilleke et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:31679-31685 (1999)). The next step in the pathway entails the conversion of isobutyryl-CoA into methacrylyl-CoA via 2-methyl-acylCoA dehydrogenase (EC #: 1.3.99.12). This transformation towards methacrylyl-CoA has been observed in Streptomyces species, and the associated enzyme has been isolated and expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J. Bacteriol. 171:6800-6807 (1989)). In the final step, methacrylyl-CoA is converted to MAA by either a single enzyme or a series of enzymes, as described in Example XI (step 5).

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MAA from acetyl-CoA.

Example XIV Pathway for Conversion of Acrylyl-CoA to MAA

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthesis pathway from acrylyl-CoA.

High yields of MAA can be obtained through the acrylyl-CoA pathway (see FIG. 14). This pathway requires the activation of lactate to lactoyl-CoA followed by five, or optionally six, more steps for the conversion of this activated CoA molecule into MAA. The MAA yield from glucose using this pathway is 1.28 mol/mol of glucose and oxygen uptake is required for attaining these yields. In the absence of oxygen, the expected yield decreases from 1.28 mol to 1.09 mol/mol glucose consumed. Both the aerobic and anaerobic pathways are energy limited at maximum MAA yield and do not generate any ATP.

MAA biosynthesis through the acrylyl-CoA pathway first requires the conversion of pyruvate into lactate via lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.28), an enzyme native to E. coli and many other organisms. The three subsequent steps, converting lactate into propionyl-CoA, are catalyzed by enzymes in pyruvate fermentation pathways in several unrelated bacteria such as Clostridium propionicum and Megasphaera elsdenii (MetaCyc). Lactate-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.1), also known as propionate-CoA transferase, converts lactate into lactoyl-CoA and can use both propionate and lactate as substrates. This enzyme has been purified and characterized (Schweiger et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 169:441-448 (1987)). Lactoyl-CoA is dehydrated into acrylyl-CoA using lactoyl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.54), an enzyme that has been a subject of numerous studies (Hofmeister and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 206:547-552. (1992); Kuchta and Abeles, J. Biol. Chem. 260:13181-13189 (1985)). Subsequently, acrylyl-CoA is reduced to propionyl-CoA using the acryloyl-CoA reductase (EC 1.3.2.2, formerly 1.3.99.3) (Hetzel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:902-910 (2003); Kuchta and Abeles, supra, 1985).

Referring to FIG. 14, in step 5, propionyl-CoA is converted into S-methylmalonyl-CoA by propionyl-CoA carboxylase (6.4.1.3). Propionyl-CoA carboxylase has been purified from rat liver (Browner et al., J. Biol. Chem. 264:12680-12685 (1989); Kraus et al., J. Biol. Chem. 258:7245-7248 (1983)) and has been isolated and characterized from human liver as well (Kalousek et al., J. Biol. Chem. 255:60-65 (1980)). Carboxylation of propionyl-CoA into succinyl-CoA via this enzyme has been identified as one of the mechanisms of propionate metabolism in E. coli (Evans et al., Biochem. J. 291 (Pt 3):927-932 (1993)), but very little is known about the genetics of the pathway.

The final steps of the pathway entail conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA into MAA (lumped reaction in FIG. 14). Enzymes catalyzing these reactions are described in Example I.

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MAA from pyruvate.

Example XV Pathway for Conversion of 2-Ketoisovalerate to MAA

This example describes an exemplary MAA synthetic pathway from 2-ketoisovalerate.

In this pathway, MMA biosynthesis occurs through 2-ketoisovalerate, a precursor for valine biosynthesis (see FIG. 15). Specifically, 2-ketoisovalerate can be formed from pyruvate following the action of three enzymes, acetolactate synthase, acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase, and dihydroxy-acid dehydratase. The conversion of 2-ketoisovalerate to MAA requires four enzymatic steps and leads to MAA yields of 1 mol/mol glucose under aerobic conditions and to yields of 0.4 mol/mol glucose under anaerobic conditions (Table 5). The pathway is not redox-balanced, and the secretion of fermentation products such as ethanol and formate will occur under anaerobic conditions. In spite of the relatively low yields of MAA through this pathway in the absence of oxygen, the energetics are very favorable and up to 2.2 moles of ATP are generated per mole of glucose consumed.

TABLE 5 Product and ATP yields for 2-ketoisovalerate pathway. MAA biosynthetic pathway via 2- Ketoisovalerate Anaerobic Aerobic MAA Yield 0.4 1.0 Max ATP yield @ max MAA yield 2.2 7.0

The pathway exploits multiple steps of the valine degradation route described in several organisms, including Bacillus subtilis, Arabidopsis thaliana, and several species of Pseudomonas but not known to be present in E. coli or in S. cerevisiae. In the first step of the valine degradation pathway, valine is converted into 2-ketoisovalerate by branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.24), an enzyme also native to E. coli (Matthies and Schink, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992); Rudman and Meister, J. Biol. Chem. 200:591-604 (1953)). The subsequent conversion of 2-ketoisovalerate into isobutyryl-CoA, catalyzed by a branched-chain keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (EC 1.2.1.25), is the committing step for MAA biosynthesis via this route. Next, isobutyryl-CoA is converted to methacrylyl-CoA via isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (EC 1.3.99.12). Details for this step are described in Example XIII. The final step, conversion of MAA-CoA to MAA, is described in Example I.

This example describes a biosynthetic pathway for production of MMA from 2-ketoisovalerate.

Example XVI Preparation of a 3-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway shown in FIG. 6. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the sucD (YP_001396394), 4hbd (YP_001396393), buk1 (Q45829), and ptb (NP_349676) genes encoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, and phosphotransbutyrylase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. This construct allows the production of 4HB-CoA from succinyl-CoA as described in Burk et al. (U.S. publication 2009/0075351). In addition, the icmA (CAB40912.1) and hibch (Q5XIE6.2) genes encoding 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase and 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, respectively, are cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis via the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the succinyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA intermediates of the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Example XVII Preparation of 2-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting Acetyl-CoA to 2-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid from acetyl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid pathway shown in FIG. 12. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). In particular, the atoB (P76461.1), hbd (P52041.2), and Mpe_B0541 (YP_001023546.1) genes encoding the acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, and 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA mutase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, hibch (Q5XIE6.2) encoding 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase activity is cloned into the pZA33 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis via the acetyl-CoA pathway.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the acetyl-CoA intermediate of the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce 2-hydroxyisobutyric acid from acetyl-CoA.

Example XVIII Pathway for Conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-Hydroxyisobutyrate or MAA Via 2-Hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA

This example describes an exemplary 2-hydroxyisobutyrate or MAA synthesis pathway proceeding from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA that passes through 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA. The pathway, depicted in FIG. 12, is high-yielding under even under anaerobic conditions with a maximum theoretical yield of 1.33 moles of 2-hydroxybutyrate or MAA per mole of glucose. This is in contrast to the pathways originating from acetyl-CoA described in Example XI, which are limited to a maximum theoretical yield of one mole of product per mole of glucose.

The pathway first entails the dehydration of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to vinylacetyl-CoA which is subsequently isomerized to crotonoyl-CoA. Crotonyl-CoA is hydrated to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, which is rearranged into 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA. The final step of the 2-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway involves eliminating the CoA functional group from 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA. The final steps in MAA synthesis involve the dehydration of 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA followed by the removal of the CoA functional group from methacrylyl-CoA. Gene candidates for the first three pathway steps, steps 7, 8, and 9 of FIG. 12, are described below. Gene candidates for steps 3, 4, 5, and 6 of FIG. 12 are discussed in example XI.

Referring to FIG. 12, steps 8 and 9 are carried out by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase enzymes. The enzymes from both Clostridium aminobutyrium and C. kluyveri catalyze the reversible conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA and also possess an intrinsic vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase activity (Scherf and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:421-429 (1993); Scherf et al., Arch. Microbiol. 161:239-245 (1994)). Both native enzymes have been purified and characterized, including the N-terminal amino acid sequences (Scherf and Buckel, supra, 1993; Scherf et al., supra, 1994). The abfD genes from C. aminobutyrium and C. kluyveri match exactly with these N-terminal amino acid sequences, thus are encoding the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratases/vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase. In addition, abfD from Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC 33277 is another exemplary 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase that can be identified through homology.

abfD YP_001396399.1 Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555 abfD P55792 Clostridium aminobutyricum abfD YP_001928843 Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC 33277

Step 10 of FIG. 12 is carried out by a crotonase enzyme. Such enzymes are required for n-butanol formation in some organisms, particularly Clostridial species, and also comprise one step of the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle in thermoacidophilic Archaea of the genera Sulfolobus, Acidianus, and Metallosphaera. Exemplary genes encoding crotonase enzymes can be found in C. acetobutylicum (Boynton, et al., J. Bacteriol. 178(11):3015-3024 (1996)), C. kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, FEBS Lett. 21(3):351-354 (1972)), and Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318(5857):1782-1786 (2007)) though the sequence of the latter gene is not known. Enoyl-CoA hydratases, which are involved in fatty acid beta-oxidation and/or the metabolism of various amino acids, can also catalyze the hydration of crotonyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Agnihotri and Liu, Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11(1):9-20 (2003); Roberts et al., Arch. Microbiol. 117(1):99-108 (1978); Conrad et al., J. Bacteriol. 118(1); 103-11 (1974)). The enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism (Olivera et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(11):6419-6424 (1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (Olivera et al., supra, 1998). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185(18):5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Park and Lee, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86(6):681-686 (2004a)); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116: 335-346 (2004b)); Ismail et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 270(14):3047-3054 (2003), and paaG (Park and Lee, supra, 2004; Park and Lee, supra, 2004b; Ismail et al., supra, 2003).

crt NP_349318.1 Clostridium acetobutylicum crt1 YP_001393856 Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555 paaA NP_745427.1 Pseudomonas putida paaB NP_745426.1 Pseudomonas putida phaA ABF82233.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens phaB ABF82234.1 Pseudomonas fluorescens maoC NP_415905.1 Escherichia coli paaF NP_415911.1 Escherichia coli paaG NP_415912.1 Escherichia coli

This example describes a biosynthesis pathway for 2-hydroxyisobutyrate or methacylic acid from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA.

Example XIX Preparation of an MAA Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA via 2-Hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing MAA from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the MAA pathway shown in FIG. 12 that starts from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing MAA. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce MAA, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel, supra, 1999). First, the sucD (YP_001396394), 4hbd (YP_001396393), buk1 (Q45829), and ptb (NP_349676) genes encoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, and phosphotransbutyrylase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. This construct allows the production of 4HB-CoA from succinyl-CoA as described in Burk et al. (U.S. publication 2009/0075351). The abfD (YP_001396399.1) and crt1 (YP_001393856) encoding 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase, and enoyl-CoA hydratase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZS23 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. In addition, the hgdA (P11569), hgdB (P11570), hgdC (P11568), and hibch (Q5XIE6.2) genes encoding 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA dehydratase and methacrylyl-CoA hydrolase activities are cloned into the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. pZS23 is obtained by replacing the ampicillin resistance module of the pZS13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) with a kanamycin resistance module by well-known molecular biology techniques. The three sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for MAA synthesis from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the MAA synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce MAA is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional MAA synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of MAA. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of MAA. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA intermediate of the MAA product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the MAA producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of MAA, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce MAA from 4-hydroxybutyrl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

Example XX Preparation of a 2-Hydroxyisobutyrate Producing Microbial Organism Having a Pathway for Converting 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 2-Hydroxyisobutyrate via 2-Hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism capable of producing 2-hydroxyisobutyrate from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the 2-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway shown in FIG. 12 that starts from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 2-hydroxyisobutyrate. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under anaerobic or microaerobic conditions.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, nucleic acids encoding the enzymes utilized in the pathway are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). First, the sucD (YP_001396394), 4hbd (YP_001396393), buk1 (Q45829), and ptb (NP_349676) genes encoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, and phosphotransbutyrylase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZE13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. This construct allows the production of 4HB-CoA from succinyl-CoA as described in Burk et al. (U.S. publication 2009/0075351). The abfD (YP_001396399.1), crt1 (YP_001393856), and hibch (Q5XIE6.2) genes encoding 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase, enoyl-CoA hydratase, and 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase activities, respectively, are cloned into the pZS23 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The two sets of plasmids are transformed into E. coli strain MG1655 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 2-hydroxyisobutyrate synthesis from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

The resulting genetically engineered organism is cultured in glucose-containing medium following procedures well known in the art (see, for example, Sambrook et al., supra, 2001). Cobalamin is also supplied to the medium to ensure activity of the mutase enzyme unless the host strain of E. coli is engineered to synthesize cobalamin de novo (see, for example, Raux et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:753-767 (1996)). The expression of the 2-hydroxyisobutyrate synthesis genes is corroborated using methods well known in the art for determining polypeptide expression or enzymatic activity, including for example, Northern blots, PCR amplification of mRNA, immunoblotting, and the like. Enzymatic activities of the expressed enzymes are confirmed using assays specific for the individual activities. The ability of the engineered E. coli strain to produce 2-hydroxyisobutyrate is confirmed using HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and/or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS).

Microbial strains engineered to have a functional 2-hydroxyisobutyrate synthesis pathway are further augmented by optimization for efficient utilization of the pathway. Briefly, the engineered strain is assessed to determine whether any of the exogenous genes are expressed at a rate limiting level. Expression is increased for any enzymes expressed at low levels that can limit the flux through the pathway by, for example, introduction of additional gene copy numbers.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling is utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling is also used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 2-hydroxyisobutyrate. One modeling method is the bilevel optimization approach, OptKnock (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioengineer. 84:647-657 (2003)), which is applied to select gene knockouts that collectively result in better production of 2-hydroxyisobutyrate. Adaptive evolution also can be used to generate better producers of, for example, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA intermediate of the 2-hydroxyisobutyrate product. Adaptive evolution is performed to improve both growth and production characteristics (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36:1056-1058 (2004); Alper et al., Science 314:1565-1568 (2006)). Based on the results, subsequent rounds of modeling, genetic engineering and adaptive evolution can be applied to the 2-hydroxyisobutyrate producer to further increase production.

For large-scale production of 2-hydroxyisobutyrate, the above organism is cultured in a fermenter using a medium known in the art to support growth of the organism under anaerobic conditions. Fermentations are performed in either a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner. Anaerobic conditions are maintained by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the culture vessel, for example, flasks can be sealed with a septum and crimp-cap. Microaerobic conditions also can be utilized by providing a small hole in the septum for limited aeration. The pH of the medium is maintained at a pH of around 7 by addition of an acid, such as H₂SO₄. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm) and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Byproducts such as undesirable alcohols, organic acids, and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC (Shimadzu, Columbia Md.), for example, using an Aminex® series of HPLC columns (for example, HPX-87 series) (BioRad, Hercules Calif.), using a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 775-779 (2005)).

This example describes the preparation of a microbial organism that can produce 2-hydroxyisobutyrate from 4-hydroxybutyrl-CoA via 2-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA.

Example XXI Design of Gene Knockout Strains for Increased Production of Methacrylic Acid or 3-Hydroxyisobutyric Acid

This example describes the design of strains with gene knockouts for increased production of methacrylic acid or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid.

OptKnock is a bilevel computational framework formulated with the overall objective of developing genetically stable overproducing microorganisms. Specifically, the framework examines the complete network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene deletions, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, there is negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome by appropriate genetic manipulations using a complete deletion rather than an insertion.

The concept of growth-coupled biochemical production can be visualized in the context of the biochemical production envelopes of a typical metabolic network calculated using an in silico model. These limits are obtained by fixing the uptake rate(s) of the limiting substrate(s) to their experimentally measured value(s) and calculating the maximum and minimum rates of biochemical production at each attainable level of growth. Although exceptions exist, typically the production of a desired biochemical is in direct competition with biomass formation for intracellular resources (see FIG. 16). Thus, enhanced rates of biochemical production will necessarily result in sub-maximal growth rates. The knockouts suggested by OptKnock are designed to restrict the allowable solution boundaries, forcing a change in metabolic behavior from the wild-type strain. Although the actual solution boundaries for a given strain will expand or contract as the substrate uptake rate(s) increase or decrease, each experimental point should lie within its calculated solution boundary. Plots such as these allow the visualization of how close strains are to their performance limits or, in other words, how much room is available for improvement. The OptKnock framework has already been able to identify promising gene deletion strategies for biochemical overproduction (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84(6):647-657 (2003); Pharkya et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84(7):887-899 (2003); Pharkya et al., Genome Res. 14(11):2367-2376 (2004)) and establishes a systematic framework that will naturally encompass future improvements in metabolic and regulatory modeling frameworks.

Described in more detail in Examples XXII and XXIII are sets of enzyme activities that should be absent, attenuated, or eliminated for creating host organisms that achieve growth-coupled MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid production upon the addition of the MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid biosynthetic pathways. To enumerate all potential strategies, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, has been implemented which entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration.

The OptKnock algorithm identified growth-coupled strain designs for overproduction of MAA, or if desired the precursor 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (3-HIB), based on a stoichiometric model of Escherichia coli metabolism. Assumptions include (i) a glucose uptake rate of 10 mmol/gdw/hr; (ii) anaerobic or microaerobic conditions; and (iii) a minimum non-growth associated maintenance requirement of 4 mmol/gDCW/hr. Although the growth substrate was assumed to be glucose, it is understood that the strategies are applicable to any substrate including glucose, sucrose, xylose, arabinose, or glycerol. The complete set of growth-coupled production designs for the succinyl-CoA:MAA pathway (FIG. 2) and the 4-HB-CoA:MAA pathway (FIG. 6) are listed in Tables 10 and 11, respectively. Tables 10 and 11 show the reaction combinations targeted for removal by OptKnock to enhance production of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid via a succinyl-CoA (Table 10) or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Table 11) intermediate. Attenuation of at least one, or any combination of the reactions, including up to most or all of the reactions, can be utilized to achieve a desired effect. The enzyme names, their abbreviations, and the corresponding reaction stoichiometries are listed in Table 12. Finally, metabolite names corresponding to the abbreviations in the reaction equations are listed in Table 13.

Although the designs were identified using a metabolic model of E. coli metabolism, and the gene names listed in Table 12 are specific to E. coli, the method of choosing the metabolic engineering strategies and also the designs themselves are applicable to any MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate producing organism. Thus the designs are essentially lists of enzymatic transformations whose activity must be either eliminated, attenuated, or initially absent from a microorganism to enable growth coupled production.

The key criterion for prioritizing the final selection of designs was the growth-coupled yield of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate and/or methacrylic acid. To examine this, production cones were constructed for each strategy by first maximizing and subsequently minimizing product yields at different rates of biomass formation, as described above. Convergence of the rightmost boundary of all possible phenotypes of the mutant network at a single point implies that there is a unique optimum yield of the product at the maximum biomass formation rate. In other cases, the rightmost boundary of the feasible phenotypes is a vertical line, indicating that at the point of maximum biomass, the network can make any amount of MAA in the calculated range, including the lowest amount at the bottommost point of the vertical line. Such designs were given a lower priority. Short lists of the highest priority OptKnock designs for each pathway are provided in Tables 6 and 8 in Examples XXII and XXIII, respectively.

Although strain designs in the following Examples are characterized by their capacity to produce MAA coupled to biomass formation, it is understood that these strains can also be utilized to overproduce the MAA-pathway intermediate 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. In both pathways, the final enzymatic step for forming MAA entails the dehydration of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate by 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase (step 5 in FIG. 2, step 3 in FIG. 6). Since this reaction does not consume or produce reducing equivalents, protons, or energy it will not alter the energetics of the strain designs. Thus, in a strain lacking 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase activity, all designs described herein allow growth-coupled production of 3-HIB.

This example describes the design of gene knockouts for generating strains for growth coupled production of MAA and/or 3-HIB.

Example XXII Knockout Designs for a Succinyl-CoA:MAA Pathway

This example describes knockout designs for a succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway. As discussed previously, it is understood that similar knockout designs can be used for a succinyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway as well.

Table 6 shows growth coupled designs for the succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway, designed as described in Example XXI. Table 7 shows maximum theoretical yields of MAA and biomass formation rates of growth-coupled designs shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Sets of enzymatic transformations whose activity should be either eliminated, attenuated or initially absent from a microorganism to allow the growth coupled production of methyacrylic acid and/or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. Design Enzyme activity Abbreviation Notes  1 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr malate dehydrogenase MDH D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D  2 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ASPT L-aspartase ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D  3 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 2 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PFLi L-aspartase ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D pyruvate formate lyase PFLi  4 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 3 + malate dehydrogenase MDH THD2 and/or L-aspartase ASPT GLUDy D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D pyruvate formate lyase PFLi NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 and/or and/or glutamate GLUDy dehydrogenase (NADP)  5 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 2 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ATPS4r L-aspartase ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D ATP synthase ATPS4r  6 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 5 + malate dehydrogenase MDH GLCpts L-aspartase ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D ATP synthase ATPS4r D-glucose transport via GLCpts PEP: Pyr PTS  7 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH GLUDy D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D glutamate dehydrogenase (NADP) GLUDy  8 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 7 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PFLi D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D glutamate dehydrogenase (NADP) GLUDy pyruvate formate lyase PFLi  9 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 8 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ACKr and/or D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D PTAr pyruvate formate lyase PFLi glutamate dehydrogenase (NADP) GLUDy Phosphotransacetylase and/or ACKr and/or acetate kinase PTAr 10 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH THD2 D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 11 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 10 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PGL and/or D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D G6PDHy NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 6-phosphogluconolactonase and/or PGL and/or glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase G6PDHy 12 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 11 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PFLi D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 6-phosphogluconolactonase and/or PGL and/or glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase G6PDHy pyruvate formate lyase PFLi 13 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH NADH6 D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NADH dehydrogenase NADH6 14 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 13 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ACKr/PTAr D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NADH dehydrogenase NADH6 Phosphotransacetylase and/or ACKr and/or acetate kinase PTAr

All high-priority growth coupled designs for the succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway (Table 6 and FIG. 17) build upon Design 1, which calls for the absence of acetylaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase (ADHEr), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) activities to prevent the formation of fermentation byproducts. Design 2 builds upon this base design with the additional removal of L-aspartase (ASPT) functionality. This design is capable of reaching 54% of the theoretical maximum MAA yield (0.35 g/g) at the maximum biomass yield (Table 7).

TABLE 7 Maximum theoretical MAA yields and biomass formation rates of growth-coupled designs in Table 6. The maximum theoretical yield of MAA in a wild-type background is 0.64 g/g (grams MAA produced per gram glucose utilized). Design MAA (g/g) % Theoretical Yield Biomass (1/hr) 2 0.35 54% 0.148 3 0.60 94% 0.076 4 0.60 95% 0.07 5 0.42 66% 0.123 6 0.54 84% 0.07 7 0.21 32% 0.162 8 0.35 55% 0.123 9 0.60 95% 0.07 10 0.29 46% 0.202 11 0.37 59% 0.158 12 0.52 82% 0.131 13 0.27 42% 0.195 14 0.56 88% 0.118

Designs 3 and 4 build on Design 2 as a base design. Design 3 entails the removal of pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi) activity to prevent secretion of formate as a byproduct. This design results in an MAA yield of 94% of the theoretical maximum. Further deletion of NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2) and/or glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy) in Design 4 serves to tightly couple cell growth to MAA production while achieving 95% of the theoretical maximum yield. This design also requires the formation of at least 0.24 g/g MAA for biomass formation.

Designs 5 and 6 also build on Design 2 as a base design. In Design 5, removal of ATP synthase (ATPS4r) results in a yield of 0.42 g/g MAA at the maximum biomass formation rate of 0.123 l/hr. This design tightly couples growth to product formation but requires secretion of acetate and formate as fermentation byproducts. Removing glucose transport via the phosphoenolpyruvate:pyruvate PTS system reduces byproduct formation and increases MAA production to 0.54 g/g (84% of the maximum theoretical yield).

Designs 7-14 build on Design 1, in which ADHEr, MDH and LDH_D functionality is removed. In Design 7, removal of glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy) functionality yields a mutant that produces 0.21 g/g MAA at 0.162 l/hr. Further deletion of pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi) in Design 8 yields 0.35 g/g MAA. Additional deletion of phosphotransacetylase (PTAr) and/or acetate kinase (ACKr) in Design 9 prevents formation of acetate and increases product yield to 0.60 g/g, 95% of the theoretical maximum. Further removal of transhydrogenase (THD2) functionality improves growth-coupling of this design.

Design 10 knocks out NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2) in addition to MDH, LDH, and ADHEr. This strain is predicted to achieve an MAA yield of 0.29 g/g at a maximum growth rate of 0.20 l/hr. Additional deletion of 6-phosphogluconolactonase (PGL) and/or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy) serves to increase flux through glycolysis, thereby improving the predicted MAA yield to 0.37 g/g with tightened coupling to biomass formation. Additional deletion of pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi), which forces flux through PDH and reduces byproduct formation, increases the predicted MAA yield to 0.52 g/g, 82% of the theoretical maximum. Additional deletions in ACKr and ASPT also improve the product yield of this design by reducing byproduct formation.

Design 13 builds on Design 1 with the additional knockout of NADH dehydrogenase (NADH6). This yields a strain with an MAA yield of 0.27 g/g at the maximum biomass formation rate. Further deletion of phosphotransacetylase (PTAr) and/or acetate kinase (ACKr) in Design 14 improves the yield to 0.56 g/g, 88% of the theoretical maximum. This design has the advantage of producing MAA as the sole fermentation byproduct.

All high-yielding strain designs involve deletion of at least one of the following reactions: alcohol dehydrogenase (ADHEr), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D), phosphogluconolactonase (PGL), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy), pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi), NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2), ATP synthetase (ATPS4r), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), aspartase (ASPT), acetate kinase (ACKr), phosphotransacetylase (PTAr) and NADH dehydrogenase (NADH6). Addition of any of these knockouts to the strain designs in Table 6 will further improve the yield of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutryrate.

These results describe knockout design strategies to generate strains having growth-coupled production of MAA or 3-HIB.

Example XXIII Knockout Designs for a 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA:MAA Pathway

This example describes knockout designs for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA pathway. As discussed previously, it is understood that similar knockout designs can be used for a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway as well.

For the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway, OptKnock designs were generated for strains that utilize either a hydrolase or a transferase to generate 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or MAA (FIG. 6, step 2). Designs generated for the two conditions were similar, although product yields and growth-coupling were significantly higher when a transferase is utilized. All designs are listed in Table 11. Table 8 shows growth coupled designs for the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA pathway, designed as described in Example XXI. Table 9 shows maximum theoretical yields of MAA and biomass formation rates of growth-coupled designs shown in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Sets of enzymatic transformations whose activity should be either eliminated, attenuated or initially absent from a microorganism to allow the growth coupled production of methacrylic acid and/or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid. Design Enzyme activity Abbreviation Notes 1 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr malate dehydrogenase MDH D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D 2 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D L-aspartase ASPT 3 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 2 + malate dehydrogenase MDH THD2/ D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D GLUDy L-aspartase ASPT NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 and/or and/or glutamate GLUDy dehydrogenase (NADP) 4 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 3 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PFLi L-aspartase ASPT D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 and/or and/or glutamate GLUDy dehydrogenase (NADP) pyruvate formate lyase PFLi 5 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 2 + malate dehydrogenase MDH ATPS4r D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D L-aspartase ASPT ATP synthase ATPS4r 6 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 5 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PGL and/or D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D G6PDHy L-aspartase ASPT ATP synthase ATPS4r 6-phosphogluconolactonase and/or PGL and/or glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase G6PDHy 7 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 5 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PFLi D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D L-aspartase ASPT ATP synthase ATPS4r Pyruvate formate lyase PFLi 8 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 1 + malate dehydrogenase MDH THD2 D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 and/or and/or glutamate GLUDy dehydrogenase (NADP) 9 Acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase ADHEr Design 8 + malate dehydrogenase MDH PGL and/or D-lactate dehydrogenase LDH_D G6PDHy NAD(P) transhydrogenase THD2 and/or and/or glutamate GLUDy dehydrogenase (NADP) 6-phosphogluconolactonase and/or PGL and/or glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase G6PDHy

The highest priority growth-coupled strain designs (Table 8, FIG. 18) build upon Design 1, a base strain with removed, reduced or attenuated alcohol dehydrogenase (ADHEr), malate dehydrogenase (MDH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D) functionality. The additional removal of succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase functionality may be beneficial for efficient channeling of flux through succinyl-CoA.

TABLE 9 Maximum theoretical MAA yields and biomass formation rates of growth-coupled designs in Table 8. MAA yields are calculated under the assumption that a transferase is utilized to convert 3-hydroxyisobutyrl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate. Identical yields are predicted if 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA is first converted to methacryl-CoA which is then converted to MAA by a transferase. Additional assumptions: ATP maintenance energy = 4 mmol/gDCW/hr, SSALx, SSALy knocked out. Design MAA Yield (g/g) % Theoretical Max Biomass (1/hr) 2 0.33 52% 0.13 3 0.34 54% 0.12 4 0.62 97% 0.039 5 0.31 48% 0.073 6 0.57 90% 0.056 7 0.56 88% 0.044 8 0.29 46% 0.19 9 0.52 81% 0.112

Designs 2-7 build on Design 1 with the additional removal, reduction or attenuation of L-aspartase (ASPT) activity. Design 2 produces an MAA yield of 0.33 g/g at the maximum growth rate of 0.13 l/hr. The major fermentation byproducts of this strain are acetate and formate. Further deletion of genes involved in formate production and energy generation can reduce formation of these byproducts. Design 3 builds upon Design 2 with the additional deletion of NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2) and/or glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), resulting in an MAA yield of 0.34 g/g at the maximum growth rate 0.12 l/hr. This strain does not eliminate byproduct formation, but it is tightly growth-coupled and is required to produce a minimum of 0.07 g MAA per gram glucose utilized for energy generation. Additional deletion of pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi) in Design 4 eliminates formate secretion and increases the MAA yield to 0.62 g/g (97% of the theoretical maximum) and also requires the production of at least 0.24 g/g MAA for energy generation.

Design 5 builds upon Design 4 with the additional deletion of ATP synthetase (ATPS4r). This strain achieves 0.31 g/g MAA at a maximum growth rate of 0.073 l/hr. Further deletion of 6-phosphogluconolactonase (PGL) and/or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy) functionality in Design 6 increases the product yield at maximum biomass (0.57 g/g at 0.056 l/hr maximum growth rate). Alternatively, deletion of pyruvate formate lyase also results in a high-yielding design with tight growth-coupling (Design 7).

Design 8 builds upon the Design 1 base strain (ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH) with the removal of NAD(P) transhydrogenase functionality. This strain design achieves 0.29 g/g MAA at biomass 0.19 l/hr. Further deletion of phosphogluconolactonase (PGL) and/or glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy) in Design 9 increases MAA production at maximum biomass to 0.52 g/g at 0.112 l/hr.

All high-yielding strain designs involve deletion of at least one of the following reactions: alcohol dehydrogenase (ADHEr), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D), phosphogluconolactonase (PGL), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy), pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi), NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2), ATP synthetase (ATPS4r), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), and aspartase (ASPT). Addition of any of these knockouts to the strain designs in Table 8 will further improve the yield of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutryrate.

These results describe knockout design strategies to generate strains having growth-coupled production of MAA or 3-HIB.

Example XXIV Characterization of Engineered Strains

This example describes characterization of engineered strains.

Strain Construction:

Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655 housing the 3-hydroxyisobutyrate and/or MAA pathway is used as the strain into which the deletions are introduced. The strains are constructed by incorporating in-frame deletions using homologous recombination via the X Red recombinase system of Datsenko and Wanner (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97(12):6640-6645 2000)). The approach involves replacing a chromosomal sequence, that is, the gene targeted for removal, with a selectable antibiotic resistance gene, which itself is later removed. The knockouts are integrated one by one into the recipient strain. No antibiotic resistance markers remain after each deletion, allowing accumulation of multiple mutations in each target strain. The deletion technology completely removes the gene targeted for removal so as to substantially reduce the possibility of the constructed mutants reverting back to the wild-type.

Shake Flask Characterization:

As intermediate strains are constructed, strain performance is quantified by performing shake flask fermentations. Anaerobic conditions are obtained by sealing the flasks with a rubber septum and then sparging the medium with nitrogen. For strains where growth is not observed under strict anaerobic conditions, microaerobic conditions are applied by covering the flask with foil and poking a small hole for limited aeration. Experiments are performed using M9 minimal medium supplemented with glucose unless otherwise desired for a particular application. Pre-cultures are grown overnight and used as inoculum for a fresh batch culture for which measurements are taken during exponential growth. The growth rate is determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time. Ethanol, MAA, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid and organic acids are analyzed by GC-MS or HPLC using routine procedures. Triplicate cultures are grown for each strain.

Batch Fermenter Testing:

The performance of selected strains are tested in anaerobic, pH-controlled batch fermentations. This allows reliable quantification of the growth, glucose uptake, and formation rates of all products, as well as ensure that the accumulation of acidic fermentation products will not limit cell growth. In addition, it allows accurate determination of 3-hydryxoyisobutyric acid and/or MAA volumetric productivity and yield, two of the most important parameters in benchmarking strain performance. Fermentations are carried out in 1-L bioreactors with 600 mL working volume, equipped with temperature and pH control. The reactor is continuously sparged with N₂ at approximately 0.5 L/min to ensure that dissolved oxygen (DO) levels remain below detection levels. The culture medium is the same as described above, except that the glucose concentration is increased in accordance with the higher cell density achievable in a fermentation vessel.

Chemostat Testing:

Chemostat experiments are conducted to obtain a direct measure of how the switch in fermentation mode from batch to continuous affects 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid and/or MAA yield and volumetric productivity. The bioreactors described above using batch mode are operated in chemostat mode through continuous supply of medium and removal of spent culture. The inlet flow rate is set to maintain a constant dilution rate of 80% of the maximum growth rate observed for each strain in batch, and the outlet flow is controlled to maintain level. Glucose is the limiting nutrient in the medium and is set to achieve the desired optical density in the vessel.

Adaptive Evolution:

The knockout strains are expected initially to exhibit suboptimal growth rates until their metabolic networks have adjusted to their missing functionalities. To facilitate this adjustment, the strains are adaptively evolved. By subjecting the strains to adaptive evolution, cellular growth rate becomes the primary selection pressure and the mutant cells are compelled to reallocate their metabolic fluxes in order to enhance their rates of growth. This reprogramming of metabolism has been recently demonstrated for several E. coli mutants that had been adaptively evolved on various substrates to reach the growth rates predicted a priori by an in silico model (Fong and Palsson, Nat. Genet. 36(10):1056-1058 (2004)). The OptKnock-generated strains are adaptively evolved in triplicate (running in parallel) due to differences in the evolutionary patterns witnessed previously in E. coli (Fong and Palsson, Nat Genet. 36(10):1056-1058 (2004); Fong et al., J. Bacteriol. 185(21):6400-6408 (2003); Ibarra et al., Nature 420(6912):186-189 (2002)) that could potentially result in one strain having superior production qualities over the others. Evolutions are run for a period of 2-6 weeks, depending upon the rate of growth improvement attained. In general, evolutions are stopped once a stable phenotype is obtained. The growth-coupled biochemical production concept behind the OptKnock approach results in the generation of genetically stable overproducers.

As described above and in previous examples, strain engineering strategies for coupling methacrylic acid (MAA) and 3-hydroxyisobutyrate (3-HIB) production to cell growth were calculated using OptKnock methodology. Two pathways were explored. The first pathway proceeds through methylmalonyl-CoA as an intermediate. The second pathway proceeds through 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA and can utilize either a CoA transferase, hydrolase or synthetase to convert 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-HIB. Alternatively, MAA can be produced directly by this pathway if 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA is first converted to methacrylyl-CoA. Pathway selection, host background, and selection of enzymes for each particular step impact product yield and growth characteristics of the final production strain.

Assuming that 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid is produced as a precursor, the final step of both pathways entails dehydration of 3-HIB to MAA by 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase. As this conversion does not require energy or redox equivalents, it is understood that the strain design strategies described for MAA can also be applied for growth-coupled production of 3-HIB production if 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydratase activity is not present in the production organism. In this case, the non-naturally occurring organism would produce 3-HIB instead of MAA. The maximum theoretical product and energetic yields are unchanged regardless of whether MAA or 3-HIB is produced.

All high-priority strain designs are built on three central deletions: MDH, LDH_D and ADHEr. This analysis revealed that host strain design strategies are remarkably similar and involve the deletion of a small number of enzyme activities in the host organism. The main enzyme activities impacting MAA (or 3-HIB) production are: acetaldehyde-CoA dehydrogenase (ADHEr), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH_D), phosphogluconolactonase (PGL), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDHy), pyruvate formate lyase (PFLi), NAD(P) transhydrogenase (THD2), ATP synthetase (ATPS4r), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUDy), aspartase (ASPT), acetate kinase (ACKr), phosphotransacetylase (PTAr) and NADH dehydrogenase (NADH6). Addition of any of these knockouts to the strain designs in Tables 6 and 8 or any of the non-naturally occuring microbial organisms disclosed herein will further improve the yield of MAA or 3-hydroxyisobutryrate.

Example XXV Central Metabolic Enzymes Providing Increased Theoretical Yields of MAA and/or 3-Hydroxyisobutyrate Via a Succinyl-CoA or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA Precursor Pathway

This example describes enzymes of central metabolic reactions that can be modulated to increase the theoretical yields of organisms engineered with a MAA and/or 3-hydroxyisobutyrate pathway utilizing succinyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a precursor.

In this example, we demonstrate the importance of several central metabolic reactions that allow high yields of MAA in an engineered microbe via a succinyl-CoA to MAA pathway or a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to MAA pathway. The analysis described in this example equally applies if 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid is produced by the engineered microbe along with or instead of MAA. Specifically, a series of linear programming (LP) problems were solved that maximized the MAA, or 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, yield from glucose for an E. coli metabolic network supplemented with either or both of the MAA production pathways, assuming that every reaction in central metabolism was individually deleted. As discussed above, the maximum MAA yield from glucose via either pathway is 1.33 mol/mol. Central metabolism includes all reactions in glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the glyoxylate shunt, and various anapleurotic reactions. Unless otherwise noted, it was assumed that PEP carboxykinase could operate only in the gluconeogenic, ATP-consuming direction towards phosphoenolpyruvate. Although E. coli was chosen as an exemplary microorganism, the analysis presented herein is applicable to virtually any prokaryotic or eukaryotic organism. Additionally, the conclusions described herein are valid independent of the exemplary carbohydrate feedstock, arbitrarily chosen in this example to be glucose.

Reactions whose deletion negatively affects the maximum MAA yield in the presence of an external electron acceptor (for example, oxygen, nitrate) are shown in Table 14 for three network assumptions: 1) undeleted wild-type network (that is, all reactions are present); 2) the wild-type network minus malate dehydrogenase (that is, a reaction targeted for attenuation in several OptKnock designs); and 3) the network minus both malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate formate lyase (that is, two reactions targeted for attenuation in several OptKnock designs). Similar results assuming that no external electron acceptor is present are provided in Table 15. This analysis led to three important observations, as discussed below in more detail.

TABLE 14 The maximum theoretical MAA molar yields on glucose are provided assuming that various central metabolic reactions are each individually inactivated. The analysis assumes that an external electron acceptor such as oxygen is present and that PEP carboxykinase is not used to produce oxaloacetate. Three cases are explored: 1) WT—wild-type network including all E. coli central metabolic reactions; 2) ΔMDH—wild-type network minus malate dehydrogenase activity; 3) ΔMDH,

FL—wild-type network minus malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate formate lyase activities. WT ΔMDH ΔMDH, ΔPFL % of % of % of MAA Max MAA Max MAA Max Abbreviation Reaction Name Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield ACONT Aconitase 1.067 80.0% 0.954 71.6% 0.954 71.6% CS Citrate Synthase 1.067 80.0% 0.954 71.6% 0.954 71.6% ENO Enolase 1.132 84.9% 1.097 82.3% 1.097 82.3% FUM Fumarase 1.297 97.3% 1.297 97.3% 1.297 97.3% GAPD Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 1.132 84.9% 1.097 82.3% 1.097 82.3% Dehydrogenase ICL Isocitrate Lyase 1.333  100% 1.284 96.3% 1.284 96.3% MALS Malate synthase 1.333  100% 1.297 97.3% 1.297 97.3% PDH Pyruvate dehydrogenase 1.333  100% 1.306 97.9% 1.231 92.3% PGI Phosphoglucoisomerase 1.330 99.8% 1.296 97.2% 1.296 97.2% PGK Phosphoglycerate Kinase 1.132 84.9% 1.097 82.3% 1.097 82.3% PGM Phosphoglycerate Mutase 1.132 84.9% 1.097 82.3% 1.097 82.3% PPC PEP carboxylase 1.200 90.0% 1.163 87.2% 1.163 87.2% TPI Triose Phosphate Isomerase 1.288 96.6% 1.286 96.5% 1.286 96.5%

TABLE 15 The maximum theoretical MAA molar yields on glucose are provided assuming that various central metabolic reactions are each individually inactivated. The analysis assumes that an external electron acceptor such as oxygen is not present and that PEP carboxykinase is not used to produce oxaloacetate. Three cases are explored: 1) WT—wild-type network including all E. coli central metabolic reactions; 2) ΔMDH—wild-type network minus malate dehydrogenase activity, 3) ΔMDH,

FL—wild-type network minus malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate formate lyase activities. WT ΔMDH ΔMDH, ΔPFL % of % of % of MAA Max MAA Max MAA Max Abbreviation Reaction Name Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield Yield ACONT Aconitase 1.067 80.0% 0.845 63.4% 0.845 63.4% CS Citrate Synthase 1.067 80.0% 0.845 63.4% 0.845 63.4% ENO Enolase 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% FUM Fumarase 1.091 81.8% 1.091 81.8% 1.053 78.9% GAPD Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% dehydrogenase ICL Isocitrate Lyase 1.333  100% 1.033 77.5% 0.990 74.3% MALS Malate synthase 1.333  100% 1.091 81.8% 1.053 78.9% PDH Pyruvate dehydrogenase 1.333  100% 1.277 95.7% 0.770 57.8% PGI Phosphoglucoisomerase 1.317 98.8% 1.014 76.1% 0.909 68.2% PGK Phosphoglycerate Kinase 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% PGM Phosphoglycerate Mutase 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% PPC PEP carboxylase 0.839 62.9% 0.000  0.0% 0.000  0.0% TPI Triose Phosphate Isomerase 1.108 83.1% 0.988 74.1% 0.909 68.2%

Observation 1.

Sufficient flux through citrate synthase and aconitase is required to achieve the greater than 80% of the theoretical yield of MAA in all cases. Though highly active under aerobic conditions, the oxidative branch of the tricarboxylic acid cycle is not highly active in the absence of an external electron acceptor such as oxygen or nitrate. In E. coli, for example, citrate synthase is inhibited by NADH, whose concentration is high in the absence of an external electron acceptor. Furthermore, under oxygen-limited conditions, the expression of the tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes is repressed by product of the arcA gene (Alexeeva, et al., J. Bacteriol. 185(1):204-209 (2003)). An exemplary method for increasing citrate synthase and aconitase activity in E. coli under oxygen-limited conditions involves deleting the regulator arcA and/or replacing the native citrate synthase with an NADH-insensitive enzyme (Stokell et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:35435-35443 (2003); Jin and Sonenshein, J. Bacteriol. 178(12):3658-3660 (1996).

Observation 2.

The glyoxylate shunt enzymes, isocitrate lysase, and malate synthase, are required to achieve the maximum theoretical yield of MAA when malate dehydrogenase activity is attenuated. The requirement for the glyoxylate shunt is exacerbated under oxygen-limited conditions as the maximum yield of MAA drops approximately 20% without isocitrate lysase or malate synthase activities. An exemplary method for increasing glyoxylate shunt activity in E. coli involves deleting the transcriptional repressor, iclR, as described in Sanchez, et al. (Metab. Eng. 7(3) 229-239 (2005).

Observation 3.

In a malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate formate lyase deficient background, pyruvate dehydrogenase is required to reach 93% of the maximum theoretical MAA yield in the presence of an external electron acceptor or 58% of the maximum theoretical yield in the absence of an external electron acceptor. Pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited by high NADH/NAD, ATP/ADP, and acetyl-CoA/CoA ratios. Thus the enzyme naturally exhibits very low activity under oxygen-limited or anaerobic conditions in organisms such as E. coli due in large part to the NADH sensitivity of the subunit E3, encoded by 1pdA. Exemplary methods for obtaining pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in E. coli under oxygen-limited conditions include replacing the native promoter with an anaerobically-induced promoter (Zhou et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 30(2):335-342 (2008)), introducing a point mutation into 1pdA to relieve the NADH sensitivity (Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190(11) 3851-3858 (2008), or inactivating the repressor, pdhR (Quail and Guest, Mol. Microbiol. 15(3) 519-529 (1995)). Net pyruvate dehydrogenase-like activity can alternatively be obtained from pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase. To do so, a pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) enzyme is used to convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA with the concaminant reduction of a ferredoxin protein. The reduced ferredoxin then transfers its electrons to NAD+ or NADP+ by way of NAD(P)H/ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Heterologous and native PFOR genes have recently been demonstrated to improve hydrogen production in E. coli (Akhtar and Jones, Metab. Eng. 11:139-147 (2009); Do et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 153:21-33 (2009)).

Lastly, the analysis was repeated assuming that PEP carboxykinase can operate in the ATP-forming, CO₂-fixing direction towards oxaloacetate. In organisms such as E. coli, the metabolic flux from phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate is carried by PEP carboxylase, an enzyme that does not generate an ATP equivalent. However, CO₂-fixing PEP carboxykinase activity can be enhanced in E. coli by overexpressing the native PEP carboxykinase under the appropriate conditions (Deok et al., J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 16(9) 1448-1452 (2006)) or by expressing foreign genes encoding PEP carboxykinase enzymes with more favorable kinetic properties. The observed PEP carboxykinase activity might be more prevalent in a host organism with attenuated PEP carboxylase activity (Kim et al, Appl. Env. Microbiol. 70(2) 1238-1241 (2004)). Assuming that PEP carboxykinase can carry a significant net flux towards oxaloacetate eliminates the absolute requirement for isocitrate lyase and malate synthase activity to achieve the maximum yield of MAA in all cases. Furthermore, the requirement for pyruvate dehydrogenase is also eliminated in the wild-type and malate dehydrogenase negative backgrounds. Nevertheless, engineering PEP carboxykinase activity into the host organism chosen for MAA production will be useful due to its role in improving the maximum ATP yield of the MAA pathways from 0.47 mol/mol to 1.71 mol/mol.

This example describes additional modifications that can be introduced into a 3-hydroxyisobutyrate or MAA producing microbial organism to increase product yield.

TABLE 10 Growth-coupled production designs for the succinyl-CoA:MAA pathway (FIG. 2). Predicted Design MAA ID Metabolic Transformations Targeted for Removal Yield 1 FUM 1.31393 2 HEX1 0.81503 3 MDH 0.7159 4 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.32284 5 MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.09185 6 FUM, PFLi 5.98191 7 HEX1, PFLi 5.24339 8 MDH, PFLi 5.21195 9 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.87678 10 ADHEr, PPCK 4.25091 11 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4 4.17475 12 HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.09819 13 FUM, HEX1 1.81756 14 MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1.36009 15 FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi 1.07808 16 PFLi, PPCK 0.94993 17 PPCK, PYK 0.57249 18 ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK 6.93528 19 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi 6.8792 20 HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.71657 21 MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 6.3322 22 MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.21103 23 FUM, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.09185 24 PFLi, PPCK, PYK 5.16721 25 ADHEr, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.91251 26 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 4.61324 27 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 4.5815 28 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or 4.57316 FBA and/or TPI 29 ADHEr, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.35906 30 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH 4.3526 31 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK 4.33751 32 ADHEr, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.32305 33 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK 4.3218 34 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK 4.3218 35 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2 4.27691 36 ADHEr, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.26872 37 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.26122 38 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts 4.23155 39 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1 4.07963 40 GLUDy, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.74821 41 ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.74546 42 HEX1, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.17934 43 MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.01298 44 MDH, PPCK, PYK 2.88966 45 FUM, PPCK, PYK 2.88966 46 PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 2.28488 47 PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.92036 48 ACKr and/or PTAr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi 1.19121 49 ADHEr, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 10.50357 THD2 and/or GLUDy 50 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.26017 51 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PPCK 7.5749 52 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or 7.49524 FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 53 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 7.47549 54 ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.32448 55 HEX1, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 7.30328 THD2 and/or GLUDy 56 ADHEr, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK 7.07538 57 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.04634 58 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, PFLi 7.04349 59 GLUDy, HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.02387 60 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, 6.99958 THD2 and/or GLUDy 61 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 6.91371 62 PFLi, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.78153 63 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi 6.65795 64 FUM, ME2, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 6.3322 65 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, 6.21914 THD2 and/or GLUDy 66 FUM, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.21103 67 ADHEr, GLUDy, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.18117 68 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.17362 69 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.17362 70 ME2, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 6.01239 THD2 and/or GLUDy 71 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK 5.92643 72 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or 4.76879 FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 73 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 4.76303 74 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, 4.73051 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 75 ADHEr, FUM, PFK and/or FBA and/or 4.63551 TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 76 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or 4.63551 TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 77 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PPCK, PYK 4.53921 78 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 4.4635 79 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, MDH 4.44642 80 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.44284 81 ADHEr, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.42534 82 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, PPCK 4.41046 83 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, PPCK 4.41046 84 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.40279 85 ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 4.3931 86 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, PYK 4.39083 87 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, PYK 4.39083 88 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, ME2 4.36844 89 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.35906 90 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, ME2 4.3526 91 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.32647 92 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, 4.31559 THD2 and/or GLUDy 93 FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, PFK and/or 4.08513 FBA and/or TPI, THD5 94 FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH, PFK 4.08513 and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD5 95 ACKr and/or PTAr, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 3.89111 THD2 and/or GLUDy 96 PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, PYK, 3.46752 THD2 and/or GLUDy 97 FUM, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD5 3.35722 98 HEX1, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD5 3.35722 99 FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, PFLi, 2.78398 THD2 and/or GLUDy 100 FRD and/or SUCD4, ME1x, ME2, PYK 2.6437 101 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK, 2.01602 THD2 and/or GLUDy 102 FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, MDH, PYK 1.89207 103 ACKr and/or PTAr, ME2, PGL and/or 1.83792 G6PDHy, SUCOAS 104 FUM, GLYCL, ME2, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1.36495 105 ACKr and/or PTAr, FRD and/or SUCD4, 1.24122 GLU5K, PFLi 106 ACKr and/or PTAr, FRD and/or 1.24122 SUCD4, G5SD, PFLi 107 ACKr and/or PTAr, GLU5K, PFLi, PPCK 1.09336 108 ACKr and/or PTAr, G5SD, PFLi, PPCK 1.09336 109 ACKr and/or PTAr, AKGD, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 110 ACKr and/or PTAr, ME2, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 111 ACKr and/or PTAr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 112 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PGL 1.04907 and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 113 ACKr and/or PTAr, ASPT, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 114 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 115 ACKr and/or PTAr, ACS, PFLi, PPCK 1.04907 116 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, MDH 0.91363 117 FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, 0.79247 THD2 and/or GLUDy, THD5 118 ADHEr, AKGD, ASPT, MDH 0.7853 119 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, P5CD 0.7853 120 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 0.7853 121 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PDH 0.7853 122 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, VALTA 0.7853 123 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, ME2 0.7853 124 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PPS 0.7853 125 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, NACODA 0.7853 126 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH 0.7853 127 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 11.64516 128 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD 10.90737 and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 129 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 130 ADHEr, ICL, MDH, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 131 ADHEr, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 132 ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, SERD_L 10.86679 133 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 10.79871 THD2 and/or GLUDy 134 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 10.7622 135 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, PGL and/or 10.51703 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 136 ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, 10.0408 THD2 and/or GLUDy 137 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or 9.09361 SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 138 MDH, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 8.70446 PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 139 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 8.58714 140 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, 8.35695 MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 141 FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, 8.28079 THD2 and/or GLUDy 142 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.26017 143 HEX1, ME2, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 7.86496 THD2 and/or GLUDy 144 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, 7.77845 THD2 and/or GLUDy 145 ADHEr, FUM, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.59996 TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 146 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.59996 TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 147 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or FBA 7.55146 and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 148 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.5299 TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 149 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.51427 150 ADHEr, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.41336 151 ADHEr, GLUDy, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.39109 152 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.30613 153 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 7.2706 154 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 7.25565 155 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.21719 156 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 7.20783 157 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, ME2, PFLi 7.19295 158 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.17902 159 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 7.16927 160 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 7.16927 161 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, 7.14501 PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 162 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, PFLi, THD2 7.13398 and/or GLUDy 163 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.12989 164 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 7.12989 165 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 7.08892 166 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi 7.06106 167 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.05969 168 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.03327 169 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 7.00666 170 ADHEr, NADH6 5.44845 171 ADHEr, ATPS4r 2.36532 172 ADHEr, PGI 1.80553 173 ADHEr, FUM 1.31393 174 ADHEr, HEX1 0.81503 175 ADHEr, MDH 0.7159 176 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.32284 177 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI 8.63121 178 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi 6.77656 179 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI 6.11877 180 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 6.01968 181 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi 5.98191 182 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK 5.82769 183 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6 5.64458 184 ADHEr, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.57367 185 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6 5.51162 186 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi 5.24339 187 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi 5.21195 188 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.87678 189 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK 4.69887 190 ADHEr, PGI, PPCK 4.67315 191 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PGI 4.63924 192 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH 3.93602 193 ADHEr, ATPS4r, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.20207 194 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM 2.70933 195 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI 2.48299 196 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 1.36009 197 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 9.89317 198 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.685 199 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.42455 200 ADHEr, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 7.60434 201 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 7.53021 202 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, PGI 7.53021 203 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 7.49524 204 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6 7.09625 205 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.03739 206 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, NADH6, PGI 7.02293 207 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.90622 208 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi 6.89924 209 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 6.8792 210 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, PFLi 6.87559 211 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, PFLi 6.83907 212 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD 6.83058 and/or SUCD4, PGI 213 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI 6.62593 214 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.57106 215 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, 6.48882 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 216 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI, PPCK 6.4075 217 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA 6.35839 and/or TPI, PPCK 218 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 6.3322 219 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, NADH6 6.33033 220 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.30041 221 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, PFK 6.28787 and/or FBA and/or TPI 222 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.17721 223 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, 6.08946 THD2 and/or GLUDy 224 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK 5.95899 225 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 5.94641 226 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 5.88622 227 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 5.76626 228 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, PPCK 5.74112 229 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, NADH6 5.64458 230 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, NADH6 5.59255 231 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6 5.58729 232 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.50758 233 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.42607 234 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PPCK 5.41736 235 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PPCK 5.41736 236 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 5.3991 237 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGI, PPCK 5.39847 238 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA 5.2252 and/or TPI, PPCK 239 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1 5.09544 240 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 5.02209 241 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PGI 5.01176 242 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFLi, PGI 5.00885 243 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.89177 244 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.82795 245 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PGI, PPCK 4.80562 246 ADHEr, FUM, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.69172 247 ADHEr, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.69172 248 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, ME2 3.93602 249 ADHEr, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 3.74546 THD2 and/or GLUDy 250 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS 3.23462 251 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, GLU5K 2.42406 252 ADHEr, ASNS2, ATPS4r, G5SD 2.42406 253 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, 11.12044 MDH, NADH6 254 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or 10.65458 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 255 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 9.97214 256 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, 9.83354 PGL and/or G6PDHy 257 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi 9.61783 258 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, PGL and/or 8.74922 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 259 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, 8.51047 THD2 and/or GLUDy 260 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, NADH6, 8.42455 THD2 and/or GLUDy 261 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, 8.35879 PGL and/or G6PDHy 262 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 8.19203 263 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 8.11809 264 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH 8.05129 265 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PYK 7.89307 266 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH 7.76592 267 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 7.66468 268 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.62739 269 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.62739 270 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.58195 271 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, 7.58195 PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 272 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, 7.55146 PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 273 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, PGL and/or 7.45944 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 274 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI 7.37787 275 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 7.33669 276 ADHEr, HEX1, ME2, PGL and/or 7.30328 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 277 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.29288 278 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.26202 279 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.1878 280 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, NADH6, PFLi 7.18544 281 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 7.1375 282 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, ME2, NADH6 7.09625 283 ADHEr, ME2, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.04349 284 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, NADH6, PFLi 7.03739 285 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 7.02149 and/or GLUDy 286 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 7.00602 287 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PFLi, PGL 12.62367 and/or G6PDHy, PYK 288 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, 12.58702 PGL and/or G6PDHy 289 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, 12.17542 PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 290 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 12.14168 291 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 11.92294 THD2 and/or GLUDy 292 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, NADH6, PGL 11.86695 and/or G6PDHy, PYK 293 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, 11.81945 LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 294 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PYK 11.70177 295 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH, 11.69597 PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 296 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or 11.67923 SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 297 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, 11.60977 NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 298 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, 11.4429 LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 299 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, 11.34596 PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 300 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or 11.31505 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 301 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or 11.27165 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 302 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, 11.21212 GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 303 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6 5.44845 304 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK 4.25091 305 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 4.17475 306 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D 2.36532 307 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI 1.80553 308 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D 1.31393 309 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D 0.81503 310 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH 0.7159 311 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.32284 312 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI 8.63121 313 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 6.93528 314 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi 6.8792 315 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 6.77656 316 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 6.11877 317 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.11538 318 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or 6.01968 FBA and/or TPI 319 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi 5.98191 320 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 5.82769 321 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 5.64458 322 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.57367 323 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 5.51162 324 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 5.24339 325 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 5.21195 326 ADHEr, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.91251 327 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.87678 328 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PPCK 4.69887 329 ADHEr, LDH_D, PGI, PPCK 4.67315 330 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PGI 4.63924 331 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA 4.61324 and/or TPI, PPCK 332 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK 4.5815 and/or FBA and/or TPI 333 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, 4.57316 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 334 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 4.3526 335 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PPCK 4.33751 336 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.32305 337 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 4.3218 338 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 4.3218 339 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2 4.27691 340 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.26872 341 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, 4.26122 THD2 and/or GLUDy 342 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, LDH_D 4.23155 343 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D 4.07963 344 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH 3.93602 345 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.20207 346 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D 2.70933 347 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 2.48299 348 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or 1.36009 FBA and/or TPI 349 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or 10.50357 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 350 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 9.89317 351 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.685 352 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, 8.42455 THD2 and/or GLUDy 353 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 7.60434 354 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.5749 TPI, PFLi, PPCK 355 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 7.53021 356 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 7.53021 357 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or 7.49524 FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 358 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK 7.49524 and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 359 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or 7.47549 FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 360 ADHEr, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.32448 361 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 7.09625 362 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.07538 363 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.04634 364 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 7.04349 365 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.03739 366 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 7.02293 367 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, 11.12044 LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 368 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PGL 10.92104 and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 369 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 370 ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 371 ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or 10.88038 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 372 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or 10.79871 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 373 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or 10.79806 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 374 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGL 10.7622 and/or G6PDHy, PYK 375 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or 10.65458 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 376 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, 10.65175 THD2 and/or GLUDy 377 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, 10.65175 THD2 and/or GLUDy 378 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, 10.65175 THD2 and/or GLUDy 379 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, MDH, 10.65175 THD2 and/or GLUDy 380 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 10.5877 THD2 and/or GLUDy 381 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 10.28675 382 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, 10.27254 MDH, PFLi, PGI 383 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, 10.24846 LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 384 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, 9.97214 THD2 and/or GLUDy 385 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, 9.83354 MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 386 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 9.76182 387 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 9.61783 388 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, 9.57049 NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 389 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, 9.52381 PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 390 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, 9.3809 LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6 391 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, 9.27557 LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 392 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PDH, 9.21865 PGL and/or G6PDHy 393 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6 9.04167 394 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, 9.01487 PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 395 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 8.9614 396 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 8.93851 397 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, 8.89295 MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 398 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, PGL and/or 8.74922 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 399 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 8.69116 THD2 and/or GLUDy 400 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, 8.68896 HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 401 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, 8.68776 PGL and/or G6PDHy 402 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, 8.66 THD2 and/or GLUDy 403 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, 8.66 THD2 and/or GLUDy 404 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, 8.6194 PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 405 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, 8.58651 THD2 and/or GLUDy 406 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 8.54512 THD2 and/or GLUDy 407 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, 8.51047 THD2 and/or GLUDy 408 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, 8.42455 THD2 and/or GLUDy 409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, HEX1, 8.38082 LDH_D, NADH6 410 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 8.33314 THD2 and/or GLUDy 411 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, 8.33314 THD2 and/or GLUDy 412 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi, 8.26017 THD2 and/or GLUDy 413 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, 8.20955 FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 414 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 8.16498 415 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 8.11809 416 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.80331 417 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D , NADH6, PFLi , PPS 7.78081 418 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, 7.70411 THD2 and/or GLUDy 419 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or 7.69846 FBA and/or TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 420 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, 7.69078 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 421 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, 7.66606 LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 422 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, 7.66287 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 423 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, 7.62739 THD2 and/or GLUDy 424 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, 7.62739 THD2 and/or GLUDy 425 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, 7.61395 ME2, NADH12, NADH6 426 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA 7.59996 and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 427 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.59996 TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 428 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI, 7.58195 THD2 and/or GLUDy 429 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PGI, 7.58195 THD2 and/or GLUDy 430 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, 7.57014 LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 431 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, 7.56477 PFLi, PPCK, PYK 432 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, 7.55966 THD2 and/or GLUDy 433 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFK 7.55146 and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 434 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA 7.55146 and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 435 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, 7.5467 THD2 and/or GLUDy 436 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFK and/or FBA and/or 7.5299 TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 437 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.51427 438 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, 7.51308 MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 439 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.51113 440 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.51113 441 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, ME2, PGL and/or 7.45944 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 442 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, 7.45295 GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 443 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.44019 444 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 7.43508 445 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, 7.41336 THD2 and/or GLUDy 446 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, 7.41073 LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 447 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, 7.39974 PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 448 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK, 7.39109 THD2 and/or GLUDy 449 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, 7.3905 THD2 and/or GLUDy 450 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 7.38004 451 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, 7.37787 LDH_D, NADH6, PGI 452 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, 7.35321 MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 453 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 7.31719 454 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, 7.31585 THD2 and/or GLUDy 455 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, 7.30613 THD2 and/or GLUDy 456 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, ME2, PGL and/or 7.30328 G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 457 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, 7.2931 THD2 and/or GLUDy 458 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.27491 459 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 7.27491 460 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, PFLi, 7.26202 THD2 and/or GLUDy 461 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, 7.25565 LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 462 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.25565 463 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, 7.23622 PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 464 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, 7.23393 THD2 and/or GLUDy 465 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, 7.21989 THD2 and/or GLUDy 466 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, 7.2125 HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 467 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, 7.21135 LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 468 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, 7.20895 THD2 and/or GLUDy 469 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, 7.19914 NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 470 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, 7.19295 LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 471 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 7.19078 472 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 7.19078 473 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, 7.18851 THD2 and/or GLUDy 474 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.1878 475 ADHEr, GLUDy, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, 7.13398 THD2 and/or GLUDy 476 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 7.09625 477 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 7.09284 478 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.06106 479 ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.04349 480 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, PFLi 7.03739 481 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, 7.02149 THD2 and/or GLUDy 482 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.00666 483 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 7.00602 484 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 7.00047

TABLE 11 Growth-coupled production designs for the 4-HB-CoA:MAA pathway (FIG. 6). Design Predicted ID Metabolic Transformations Targeted for Removal MAA Yield 1 ATPS4r 1.41919 2 ADHEr, NADH6 5.51519 3 ADHEr, PPCK 4.28804 4 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4 4.21382 5 PFLi, PGI 2.45706 6 ATPS4r, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.92124 7 ADHEr, PGI 1.8023 8 ADHEr, FUM 1.29828 9 FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi 1.06442 10 NADH6, PFLi 1.06442 11 PFLi, PPCK 0.93931 12 ADHEr, HEX1 0.80948 13 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.32133 14 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI 8.71082 15 HEX1, PFLi, PGI 7.22213 16 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi 6.8792 17 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI 6.18566 18 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 6.09754 19 ADHEr, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.05682 20 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK 5.89771 21 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6 5.71411 22 ADHEr, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.63485 23 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6 5.58019 24 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi 5.2123 25 ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK 5.15556 26 ATPS4r, PFLi, PGI 5.00885 27 ADHEr, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.91748 28 ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.90696 29 ADHEr, PGI, PPCK 4.71025 30 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PGI 4.67759 31 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 4.65664 32 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 4.62311 33 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 4.61796 34 ATPS4r, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.44391 35 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH 4.39382 36 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK 4.3754 37 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK 4.36046 38 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK 4.36046 39 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2 4.31642 40 ADHEr, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.30511 41 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.29689 42 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts 4.27312 43 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1 4.11519 44 ACKr and/or PTAr, AKGD, ATPS4r 3.45333 45 ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.397 46 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS 3.23462 47 ADHEr, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.09661 48 MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.00855 49 ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK 2.7407 50 PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.87744 51 ACKr and/or PTAr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi 1.17455 52 ACKr and/or PTAr, NADH6, PFLi 1.17455 53 MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.07056 54 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK 1.03613 55 RTM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.95467 56 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH 0.77578 57 FUM, HEX1, PFLi 0.70584 58 HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 0.51097 59 HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.43064 60 ASPT, FUM, PFLi 0.26432 61 ASPT, MDH, PFLi 0.22676 62 ADHEr, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 9.4382 63 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6 8.91415 64 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGI 7.77864 65 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, PGI 7.64241 66 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 7.64241 67 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 7.61537 68 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 7.61537 69 ACKr and/or PTAr, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 7.28181 70 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6 7.05818 71 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH 7.03701 72 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.99958 73 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi 6.98499 74 ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.81498 75 ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.6221 76 ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.57996 77 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PPCK 6.53047 78 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 6.36651 79 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6 6.24352 80 ADHEr, NADH6, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.23747 81 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.22745 82 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.21872 83 ADHEr, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.15963 84 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.13586 85 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.05682 86 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 6.01786 87 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.92596 88 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PPCK 5.89299 89 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PPCK 5.89299 90 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK 5.87822 91 ATPS4r, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.87538 92 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6 5.83728 93 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, PFLi 5.82636 94 ATPS4r, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.77678 95 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, NADH6 5.71411 96 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1 5.67609 97 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, NADH6 5.6596 98 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.56588 99 ME2, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.37063 100 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PPS 5.23221 101 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi 5.20022 102 ADHEr, HEX1, MDH, PFLi 5.20022 103 ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 5.11897 104 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, MDH 4.91648 105 ADHEr, FUM, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.88964 106 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.88964 107 ADHEr, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PPS 4.88619 108 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 4.77488 109 ADHEr, FUM, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.72683 110 ADHEr, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.72683 111 ADHEr, FUM, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.67659 112 ADHEr, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.67659 113 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PPCK, PYK 4.5823 114 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK 4.50446 115 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, MDH 4.48854 116 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.48038 117 ADHEr, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.46392 118 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, PPCK 4.44991 119 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, PPCK 4.44991 120 ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.43743 121 ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, PYK 4.43142 122 ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, PYK 4.43142 123 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, ME2 4.40879 124 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, ME2 4.39382 125 ADHEr, FUM, GLCpts, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.3649 126 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLCpts, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.3533 127 ME2, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.08146 128 ADHEr, HEX1, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.06156 129 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PGL and/or G6PDHy 3.76615 130 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.73541 131 ACKr and/or PTAr, AKGD, ATPS4r, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.65142 132 ACKr and/or PTAr, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.52563 133 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH 3.50899 134 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.4624 135 ACKr and/or PTAr, ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, SUCOAS 3.3813 136 ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.23342 137 ACKr and/or PTAr, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.16308 138 ATPS4r, NADH6, PDH, PFLi 3.01078 139 FUM, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.00855 140 AKGD, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 2.70882 141 MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, SUCOAS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 2.58524 142 ACKr and/or PTAr, GLU5K, PFLi, PGI 2.51808 143 ACKr and/or PTAr, G5SD, PFLi, PGI 2.51808 144 ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 2.13925 145 ME2, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.97605 146 ACKr and/or PTAr, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.96877 147 FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.58766 148 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PPS 1.57755 149 ACKr and/or PTAr, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.20253 150 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.05304 151 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ASPT, MDH 0.90077 152 ACKr and/or PTAr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi 0.88292 153 ACKr and/or PTAr, HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.61521 154 ACKr and/or PTAr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 0.56359 155 ASPT, FUM, PDH, PFLi 0.43285 156 ASPT, MDH, PDH, PFLi 0.39171 157 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH 13.10515 158 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 11.66583 159 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 11.54962 160 ATPS4r, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 11.18163 161 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 10.87211 162 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 10.85118 163 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 10.79537 164 ADHEr, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 10.79537 165 ADHEr, ICL, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 10.79537 166 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH 10.36931 167 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PDH, PFLi 10.18817 168 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi 10.10757 169 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 9.4975 and/or GLUDy 170 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 9.20833 and/or GLUDy 171 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 9.04248 172 ADHEr, GLCpts, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.60394 173 ADHEr, ME2, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.57189 174 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 8.07655 175 FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.03861 176 MDH, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.03861 177 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.63009 178 ADHEr, ATPS4r, RTM, LDH_D, NADH6 7.6151 179 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.44202 180 ADHEr, ASPT, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH 7.40564 181 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.40192 182 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 7.36994 183 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 7.36609 184 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 7.33413 185 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.27861 186 ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 7.27816 187 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 7.2681 188 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, PPCK 7.23481 189 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 7.23481 190 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 7.21534 191 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi 7.16964 192 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, ME2, PFLi 7.15036 193 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.14486 194 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.14394 195 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.13176 196 ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 7.127 197 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi 7.11053 198 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.09551 199 ADHEr, ATPS4r, RTM, ME2, NADH6 7.05818 200 ATPS4r, HEX1, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.02076 201 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 6.9884 202 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 6.98499 203 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PFLi 6.98167 204 ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.96842 205 ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.92886 206 ADHEr, HEX1, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.88098 207 ADHEr, FUM, ME2, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.81498 208 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 6.72128 209 ATPS4r, FUM, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.67745 210 ADHEr, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.67685 211 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, MDH, PFLi 6.56359 212 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 6.49377 213 ADHEr, HEX1, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.48868 214 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PGI, PPCK 6.48565 215 ADHEr, GLCpts, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 6.48238 216 ADHEr, ATPS4r 1.41919 217 ADHEr, PFLi ,PGI 2.45706 218 ADHEr, ATPS4r, THD2 and/or GLUDy 1.92124 219 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi 5.2123 220 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFLi, PGI 5.00885 221 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 4.90696 222 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 4.44391 223 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, AKGD, ATPS4r 3.45333 224 ADHEr, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 3.397 225 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS 3.23462 226 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK, PYK 2.7407 227 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 6.94738 228 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.87538 229 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.77678 230 ADHEr, ME2, PFLi, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.37063 231 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK 5.11897 232 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 11.18163 GLUDy 233 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PDH, PFLi 10.18817 234 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, ME2, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.02076 235 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.96842 236 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, NADH12, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.67745 237 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 6.00293 and/or GLUDy 238 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.05682 239 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 5.71411 240 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 4.36046 241 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 1.8023 242 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH 0.71076 243 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 8.71082 244 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.81498 245 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.26208 246 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.1932 247 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.18632 248 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGI 6.18566 249 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.13586 250 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 5.89299 251 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 5.83728 252 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 5.20022 253 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH 13.10515 254 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 13.09985 255 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 12.43893 256 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or 12.0485 GLUDy 257 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 11.54962 GLUDy 258 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 10.9713 259 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 10.87514 260 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK 10.85118 261 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PYK 10.69852 262 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 10.54348 263 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6 9.24298 264 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 8.89824 265 ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.78148 266 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.75525 267 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.68453 268 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.60394 269 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.54512 270 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.41994 271 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.22075 272 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 8.20953 273 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.83287 274 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or 7.76113 GLUDy 275 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.73026 276 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 7.64241 277 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 7.62766 278 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 7.5687 279 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK 7.50936 280 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 7.45108 281 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.44202 282 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.41734 283 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.40692 284 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 7.38196 285 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 7.36994 286 ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.35125 287 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PPCK 7.34743 288 ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.30247 289 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 7.29756 290 ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 7.20317 291 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or 6.86403 GLUDy 292 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi 6.56359 293 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, THD2 and/or 6.38107 GLUDy 294 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPS 6.33965 295 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PYK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.13919 296 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK, PYK 6.10615 297 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PPCK 6.03902 298 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.95979 299 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi, PGI 5.00885 300 NA 0.40409 301 FRD and/or SUCD4 0.34622 302 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6 0.29582 303 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK 0.24649 304 ADHEr, NADH12, NADH6 0.28919 305 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D 0.26599 306 MDH, NADH6, PFLi 0.27181 307 FRD and/or SUCD4, ME2, PFLi 0.27027 308 FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH, PFLi 0.26589 309 FUM, PFLi, PPCK 0.25998 310 MDH, PFLi, PPCK 0.25998 311 NADH6, PFLi, PPCK 0.25452 312 FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, PPCK 0.24933 313 ATPS4r, PFLi, PPCK 0.2281 314 FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, PFLi 0.30093 315 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PPCK 0.14537 316 PFLi, PGI, PPCK 0.14284 317 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PGI 0.23063 318 NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 0.30419 319 FUM, NADH6, PFLi 0.30486 320 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PPCK 0.21424 321 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.23674 322 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1 0.37576 323 ADHEr, MDH, PGI 0.24821 324 ADHEr, FUM, PGI 0.24821 325 FUM, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.18252 326 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PGI 0.08649 327 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.08878 328 ADHEr, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 0.17351 329 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4,LDH_D, MDH 0.18263 330 ATPS4r, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 0.19729 331 ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.21063 332 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, LDH_D 0.23871 333 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D 0.24228 334 ADHEr, ME2, NADH12, NADH6 0.27452 335 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 0.26541 336 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.11424 337 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, NADH6 0.28029 338 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH12, NADH6 0.28705 339 ACKr and/or PTAr, AKGD, ATPS4r, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI 0.10833 340 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.23122 341 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH12, NADH6 0.2788 342 ATPS4r, FDH2, NADH6, PDH 0.16467 343 ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 0.23908 344 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.35439 345 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6 0.26726 346 FUM, ME2, NADH6, PFLi 0.27181 347 ME2, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 0.27027 348 FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.2584 349 FUM, NADH6, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.2584 350 FRD and/or SUCD4, PFLi, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.25563 351 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS 0.37122 352 FUM, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 0.30093 353 ADHEr, FUM, PFLi, PGI 0.2381 354 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi ,PGI 0.2381 355 ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM, PDH 0.19443 356 ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PDH 0.18797 357 ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.20167 358 FUM, HEX1, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.32948 359 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, MDH 0.22488 360 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 0.28496 361 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK 0.21426 362 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PPCK 0.2103 363 FBP, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 0.14228 364 PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, PGI, PPCK 0.14228 365 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK 0.26035 366 MDH, PDH, PFLi, PGI 0.21218 367 FUM, PDH, PFLi, PGI 0.21218 368 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, FUM 0.22058 369 HEX1, NADH6, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 0.1381 370 FUM, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.13758 371 FUM, PFLi, PGI, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.1353 372 HEX1, NADH6, PFLi, PGI 0.13506 373 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, PPCK 0.20562 374 ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi 0.26825 375 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.2204 376 ADHEr, FUM, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.2204 377 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.21775 378 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFLi, PGI 0.08042 379 ATPS4r, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PFLi 0.0824 380 ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH 0.25562 381 ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PPCK 0.24489 382 ATPS4r, RTM, GLCpts, PPCK 0.24489 383 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, ME2 0.22754 384 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.22026 385 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, PGI 0.08245 386 ADHEr, HEX1, NADH6, PGI 0.08245 387 ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D 0.2051 388 ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, THD2 and/or GLUDy 0.23421 389 ADHEr, HEX1, PFK and/or FBA and/or TPI, PPCK 0.08078 390 ADHEr, MDH, ME2, NADH6 0.23176 391 ADHEr, MDH, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 2.6304 392 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, FUM, PFLi 0.37735 393 ADHEr, HEX1, PGI, PPCK 0.13376 394 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, PFLi 0.03691 395 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 9.03958 396 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, PFLi 9.0297 397 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy 8.92362 398 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or 8.83429 G6PDHy 399 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or 8.62906 G6PDHy 400 ADHEr, MDH, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or 8.50911 GLUDy 401 ADHEr, FUM, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PYK, THD2 and/or 8.50911 GLUDy 402 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, 8.37268 THD2 and/or GLUDy 403 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 8.32112 GLUDy 404 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 7.82056 405 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or 7.65378 GLUDy 406 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, MDH, PGI 7.4765 407 ADHEr, ME2, NADH12, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 7.16841 and/or GLUDy 408 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.91902 409 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PGI 6.85613 410 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, PPCK 6.78808 411 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 6.71695 412 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 6.67975 413 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, LDH_D, PPCK, 6.31121 THD2 and/or GLUDy 414 ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK, THD2 and/or 6.23672 GLUDy 415 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6 6.19739 416 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 6.15859 417 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, RTM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 6.06031 418 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 5.95481 419 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or 5.89694 GLUDy 420 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.87873 421 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6 5.87075 422 ADHEr, ATPS4r, NADH12, NADH6, PRO1z, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.87047 423 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.85008 424 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, LDH_D, ME2, NADH12, NADH6 5.77866 425 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, RTM, HEX1, LDH_D, THD2 and/or 5.77062 GLUDy 426 ADHEr, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.74841 427 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPS, THD2 and/or 5.74605 GLUDy 428 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, LDH_D, NADH12, NADH6 5.71072 429 ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PGL and/or G6PDHy,THD2 and/or 5.70312 GLUDy 430 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, ME2, NADH6 5.68643 431 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.64027 432 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, CITL, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6 5.63442 433 ADHEr, FUM, LDH_D, ME2, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.58306 434 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy 5.57201 435 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, ME2, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 5.55702 GLUDy 436 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or 5.54389 GLUDy 437 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, LDH_D, ME2, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.50066 438 ADHEr, ATPS4r, HEX1, LDH_D, NADH6, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.47201 439 ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.4078 440 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 5.36087 441 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2 and/or 5.34992 GLUDy 442 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLCpts, NADH6, PPCK 5.25122 443 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, CITL, GLCpts, NADH6 5.24209 444 ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, LDH_D, PGL and/or G6PDHy, PPCK 5.21165 445 ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, MDH, PDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 5.10503 446 ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, THD2 and/or GLUDy 5.07597 447 ADHEr, FRD and/or SUCD4, HEX1, LDH_D, PFLi, PGI 5.0175 448 ADHEr, ICL, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 10.42846 GLUDy 449 ADHEr, LDH_D, MALS, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 10.42846 GLUDy 450 ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy, THD2 and/or 10.30271 GLUDy 451 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PFLi 8.05255 452 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 6.92399 453 ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6, PPCK 6.78808 454 ACKr and/or PTAr, ADHEr, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, NADH6 6.43185 455 ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, LDH_D, MDH, PGL and/or G6PDHy 5.57201 456 ADHEr, LDH_D, MDH, NADH12, NADH6, PGI 5.02702

TABLE 12 Enzyme names, abbreviations, and the corresponding reaction stoichiometries of designs in Tables 10 and 11. Abbrev. Enzyme Name Equation ABTA 4-aminobutyrate [c]: 4abut + akg --> glu-L + sucsal transaminase ACKr acetate kinase [c]: ac + atp <==> actp + adp ACS acetyl-CoA synthetase [c]: ac + atp + coa --> accoa + amp + ppi ACt6 acetate transport in/out ac[e] + h[e] <==> ac[c] + h[c] via proton symport ADHEr acetaldehyde-CoA [c]: accoa + (2) h + (2) nadh <==> coa + etoh + dehydrogenase (2) nad AKGD 2-oxoglutarate [c]: akg + coa + nad --> co2 + nadh + succoa dehydrogenase ASNN L-asparaginase [c]: asn-L + h2o --> asp-L + nh4 ASNS1 asparagine synthase [c]: asp-L + atp + gln-L + h2o --> amp + asn-L + (glutamine-hydrolysing) glu-L + h + ppi ASNS2 asparagine synthetase [c]: asp-L + atp + nh4 --> amp + asn-L + h + ppi ASPT L-aspartase [c]: asp-L --> fum + nh4 ATPS4r ATP synthase (four adp[c] + (4) h[e] + pi[c] <==> atp[c] + (3) h[c] + protons for one ATP) h2o[c] CBMK2 Carbamate kinase [c]: atp + co2 + nh4 --> adp + cbp + (2) h CITL Citrate lyase [c]: cit --> ac + oaa DAAD D-Amino acid [c]: ala-D + fad + h2o --> fadh2 + nh4 + pyr dehydrogenase EDA 2-dehydro-3-deoxy- [c]: 2ddg6p --> g3p + pyr phosphogluconate aldolase FADH4 FADH dehydrogenaase [c]: fadh2 + mqn8 --> fad + mq18 FBA fructose-bisphosphate [c]: fdp <==> dhap + g3p aldolase FBP fructose-bisphosphatase [c]: fdp + h2o --> f6p + pi FRD fumarate reductase [c]: fum + [electron donor] --> [electron acceptor] + succ FUM fumarase [c]: fum + h2o <==> mal-L G5SD glutamate-5- [c]: glu5p + h + nadph --> glu5sa + nadp + pi semialdehyde dehydrogenase G6PDHy glucose 6-phosphate [c]: g6p + nadp <==> 6pgl + h + nadph dehydrogenase G6PDHy glucose 6-phosphate [c]: g6p + nadp <==> 6pgl + h + nadph dehydrogenase GLCpts D-glucose transport glc-D[e] + pep[c] --> g6p[c] + pyr[c] via PEP:Pyr PTS GLU5K glutamate 5-kinase [c]: atp + glu-L --> adp + glu5p GLUDC glutamate decarboxylase [c]: glu-L + h --> 4abut + co2 GLUDy glutamate dehydrogenase [c]: glu-L + h2o + nadp <==> akg + h + nadph + (NADP) nh4 GLUDy glutamate dehydrogenase [c]: glu-L + h2o + nadp <==> akg + h + nadph + (NADP) nh4 GLUSy glutamate synthase [c]: akg + gln-L + h + nadph --> (2) glu-L + nadp (NADPH) GLYCL Glycine Cleavage System [c]: gly + nad + thf --> co2 + mlthf + nadh + nh4 HEX1 hexokinase (D- [c]: atp + glc-D --> adp + g6p + h glucose:ATP) ICL Isocitrate lyase [c]: icit --> glx + succ LDH_D D-lactate dehydrogenase [c]: lac-D + nad <==> h + nadh + pyr MALS malate synthase [c]: accoa + glx + h2o --> coa + h + mal-L MDH malate dehydrogenase [c]: mal-L + nad <==> h + nadh + oaa ME1x malic enzyme (NAD) [c]: mal-L + nad --> co2 + nadh + pyr ME2 malic enzyme (NADP) [c]: mal-L + nadp --> co2 + nadph + pyr NACODA N-acetylornithine [c]: acg5sa + h2o --> ac + glu5sa deacetylase NADH12 NADH dehydrogenase [c]: h + nadh + ubq8 --> nad + ubq8h2 NADH6 NADH dehydrogenase (4.5) h[c] + nadh[c] + ubq8[c] --> (3.5) h[e] + nad[c] + ubq8h2[c] ORNTA ornithine transaminase [c]: akg + orn-L --> glu-L + glu5sa P5CD 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate [c]: 1pyr5c + (2) h2o + nad --> glu-L + h + dehydrogenase nadh PDH pyruvate dehydrogenase [c]: coa + nad + pyr --> accoa + co2 + nadh PFK phosphofructokinase [c]: atp + f6p --> adp + fdp + h PFLi pyruvate formate lyase [c]: coa + pyr --> accoa + for PGDH phosphogluconate [c]: 6pgc + nadp --> co2 + nadph + ru5p-D dehydrogenase PGDHY phosphogluconate [c]: 6pgc --> 2ddg6p + h2o dehydratase PGI glucose-6-phosphate [c]: g6p <==> f6p isomerase PGL 6-phosphogluconolactonase [c]: 6pg1 + h2o --> 6pgc + h PGL 6-phosphogluconolactonase [c]: 6pg1 + h2o --> 6pgc + h PGM phosphoglycerate mutase [c]: 3pg <==> 2pg PPCK phosphoenolpyruvate [c]: atp + oaa --> adp + co2 + pep carboxykinase PPS phosphoenolpyruvate [c]: atp + h2o + pyr --> amp + (2) h + synthase pep + pi PRO1z proline oxidase [c]: fad + pro-L --> 1pyr5c + fadh2 + h PTAr phosphotransacetylase [c]: accoa + pi <==> actp + coa PYK pyruvate kinase [c]: adp + h + pep --> atp + pyr RPE ribulose 5-phosphate 3- [c]: ru5p-D <==> xu5p-D epimerase SERD_L L-serine deaminase [c]: ser-L --> nh4 + pyr SUCD4 succinate dehyrdogenase [c]: fadh2 + ubq8 <==> fad + ubq8h2 SUCD4 succinate dehyrdogenase [c]: fadh2 + ubq8 <==> fad + ubq8h2 SUCOAS succinyl-CoA synthetase [c]: atp + coa + succ <==> adp + pi + succoa (ADP-forming) TAL transaldolase [c]: g3p + s7p <==> e4p + f6p THD2 NAD(P) (2) h[e] + nadh[c] + nadp[c] --> (2) h[c] + transhydrogenase nad[c] + nadph[c] THD2 NAD(P) (2) h[e] + nadh[c] + nadp[c] --> (2) h[c] + transhydrogenase nad[c] + nadph[c] THD5 NAD transhydrogenase [c]: nad + nadph --> nadh + nadp TKT1 transketolase [c]: r5p + xu5p-D <==> g3p + s7p TKT2 transketolase [c]: e4p + xu5p-D <==> f6p + g3p TPI triose-phosphate [c]: dhap <==> g3p isomerase VALTA valine transaminase [c]: akg + val-L <==> 3mob + glu-L VPAMT Valine-pyruvate [c]: 3mob + ala-L --> pyr + val-L aminotransferase

TABLE 13 Metabolite names corresponding to the abbreviations in the reaction equations. Abbreviation Name 1pyr5c 1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate 2ddg6p 2-Dehydro-3-deoxy-D-gluconate 6-phosphate 2pg D-Glycerate 2-phosphate 3mob 3-Methyl-2-oxobutanoate 3pg 3-Phospho-D-glycerate 4abut 4-Aminobutanoate 6pgc 6-Phospho-D-gluconate 6pgl 6-phospho-D-glucono-1,5-lactone ac Acetate accoa Acetyl-CoA acg5sa N-Acetyl-L-glutamate 5-semialdehyde adp ADP akg 2-Oxoglutarate ala-D D-Alanine ala-L L-Alanine amp AMP asn-L L-Asparagine asp-L L-Aspartate atp ATP cbp Carbamoyl phosphate cit Citrate co2 CO2 coa Coenzyme A dhap Dihydroxyacetone phosphate e4p D-Erythrose 4-phosphate etoh Ethanol f6p D-Fructose 6-phosphate fad FAD fadh2 FADH2 fdp D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate for Formate fum Fumarate g3p Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate g6p D-Glucose 6-phosphate glc-D D-Glucose

Throughout this application various publications have been referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference in this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. Although the invention has been described with reference to the examples provided above, it should be understood that various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a methacrylic acid pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce methacrylic acid, said methacrylic acid pathway comprising methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and aspartate ammonia lyase.
 2. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises two exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 3. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises three exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 4. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises four exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 5. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 4, wherein said four exogenous nucleic acids encode methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and aspartate ammonia lyase.
 6. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 7. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 6, wherein said methacrylic acid pathway further comprises methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase.
 8. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 7, wherein said five exogenous nucleic acids encode methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and aspartate ammonia lyase.
 9. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is a heterologous nucleic acid.
 10. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said non-naturally occurring microbial organism is in a substantially anaerobic culture medium.
 11. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said non-naturally occurring microbial organism further comprises a genetic modification that increases the activity of at least one enzyme selected from citrate synthase, aconitase, isocitrate lyase, malate synthase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, wherein the increase in activity is relative to the absence of said genetic modification.
 12. A method for producing methacrylic acid, comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1 under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce methacrylic acid.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein said non-naturally occurring microbial organism is in a substantially anaerobic culture medium.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprises two exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprises three exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprises four exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein said four exogenous nucleic acids encode methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprises five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a methacrylic acid pathway enzyme.
 19. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 18, wherein said methacrylic acid pathway further comprises methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein said five exogenous nucleic acids encode methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase, methylmalonyl-CoA reductase, 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase, and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate ammonia lyase.
 21. The method of claim 12, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is a heterologous nucleic acid. 